Diplomaţia lui Stalin

Robert Steuckers

Ex: http://www.estica.eu

Istoria secolului nostru este învăţată din punctul de vedere american. La fel este şi în cazul celui de-al doilea Război Mondial, al Războiului Rece şi al Războiului din Golf. În optica americană, secolul XXI este “secolul american”, în care trebuie să se instaleze şi să se menţină o ordine mondială conform cu interesele americane, secol care este simultan “sfârşitul istoriei”, sfârşitul aventurii umane, sinteza definitivă a dialecticii istoriei. Francis Fukuyama, chiar înainte de războiul din Golf, afirma că odată cu căderea Cortinei de Fier şi sfârşitul “hegelianismului de stânga” pe care îl reprezenta URSS-ul, un singur model, cel al liberalismului american, va subzista secole de-a rândul. Cu condiţia ca niciun competitor să nu se zărească la orizont. De unde misiunea americană era aceea de a reacţiona rapid, mobilizând maximum de mijloace, contra oricărei veleităţi de a construi o ordine politică alternativă.

Cu câţiva ani înainte de Fukuyama, un autor germano-american, Theodore H. von Laue, pretindea că singura revoluţie veritabilă în lume şi în istorie era aceea a occidentalizării şi că toate revoluţiile politice non-occidentaliste, toate regimurile bazate pe alte principii decât cele în vogă în America, erau relicve ale trecutului, pe care numai nişte reacţionari perverşi le puteau adula, reacţionari pe care puterea americană, economică şi militară, urma să le măture rapid pentru a face loc unui hiper-liberalism de factură anglo-saxonă, debarasat de orice concurenţă.

Dacă hitlerismul este în mod general considerat ca o forţă reacţionară perversă faţă de care America a contribuit la eliminarea din Europa, se ştiu mai puţin motivele care l-au împins pe Truman şi pe protagoniştii atlantişti ai Războiului Rece să lupte contra stalinismului şi să facă din el un căpcăun ideologic, considerat explicit de către von Laue drept „reacţionar” în ciuda etichetei sale proprii de „progresist”. Această ambiguitate faţă de Stalin se explică prin alianţa americano-sovietică în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război mondial, când Stalin era supranumit în mod prietenos “Uncle Joe”. Cu toate acestea, de câţiva ani, numeroşi istorici revăd în mod inteligent poncifele pe care patruzeci şi cinci de ani de atlantism furibund le-au vehiculat în mass-media şi în cărţile noastre de istorie. Germanul Dirk Bavendamm a demonstrat în două lucrări meticuloase şi precise care au fost responsabilităţile lui Roosevelt în declanşarea conflictelor americano-japonez şi americano-german şi de asemenea care era duplicitatea preşedintelui american faţă de aliaţii săi ruşi. Valentin Falin, fostul ambasador al URSS-ului la Bonn, a publicat în Germania o lucrare de amintiri istorice şi de reflecţii istoriografice, în care acest briliant diplomat rus afirmă că Războiul Rece a început imediat după debarcarea anglo-americană din iunie 1944 pe plajele din Normandia: desfăşurându-şi armada lor navală şi aeriană, puterile occidentale duceau deja un război mai ales contra Uniunii Sovietice şi nu contra Germaniei muribunde.

O lectură atentă a mai multor lucrări recente consacrate multiplelor aspecte ale rezistenţei germane contra regimului hitlerist ne obligă să renunţăm definitiv la interpretarea istoriei celui de-al Doilea Război mondial şi a alianţei anglo-americano-sovietice după modelul convenţional. Ostilitatea faţă de Stalin după 1945 provine mai ales din faptul că Stalin înţelegea să practice o diplomaţie generală bazată pe relaţiile bilaterale între naţiuni, fără ca acestea să fie supervizate de o instanţă universală cum ar fi ONU. Apoi, după ce şi-a dat seama că cele două puteri anglo-saxone deciseseră singure la Casablanca să facă războiul excesiv cu Reich-ul, să declanşeze războiul total şi să ceară capitularea fără condiţii a Germaniei naţional-socialiste, Stalin s-a simţit exclus de aliaţii săi. Furios, el şi-a concentrat mânia în această frază bine ticluită, în aparenţă anodină, dar foarte semnificativă: „Hitlerii vin şi se duc, poporul şi statul german rămân”. Stalin nu considera naţional-socialismul hitlerist ca pe răul absolut sau chiar ca pe o esenţă netrecătoare, ci ca pe un accident al istoriei, o vicisitudine potrivnică Rusiei eterne, pe care armatele sovietice urmau pur şi simplu să caute s-o elimine. Dar, în logica diplomatică tradiţională, care îi aparţinea lui Stalin, în ciuda ideologiei mesianice marxiste, naţiunile nu pier: nu trebuie prin urmare să ceri o capitulare necondiţionată şi trebuie mereu să laşi poarta deschisă unor negocieri. În plin război, alianţele se pot schimba cu totul, aşa cum o arată clar istoria europeană. Stalin se mulţumeşte să ceară deschiderea unui al doilea front pentru a uşura misiunea armatelor sovietice şi a diminua pierderile de vieţi omeneşti în rândul ruşilor, dar acest front nu vine decât foarte târziu, ceea ce-i permite lui Valentin Falin să explice această întârziere ca pe primul act al Războiului Rece între puterile maritime anglo-saxone şi puterea continentală sovietică.

Această reticenţă a lui Stalin se explică şi prin contextul care a precedat imediat epilogul lungii bătălii de la Stalingrad şi debarcarea anglo-saxonă în Normandia. Când armatele lui Hitler şi ale aliaţilor săi slovaci, finlandezi, români şi unguri au intrat în URSS în 22 iunie 1941, sovieticii, oficial, au estimat că clauzele Pactului Molotov/Ribbentrop au fost trădate şi, în toamna lui 1942, după gigantica ofensivă victorioasă a armatelor germane în direcţia Caucazului, Moscova a fost constrânsă să sondeze adversarul său în vederea unei eventuale păci separate: Stalin dorea să se revină la termenii Pactului şi conta pe ajutorul japonezilor pentru a reconstitui, în masa continentală eurasiatică, acel „car cu patru cai” pe care i-l propusese Ribbentrop în septembrie 1940 (sau „Pactul Cvadripartit” între Reich, Italia, URSS şi Japonia). Stalin dorea o pace nulă: Wehrmacht-ul să se retragă dincolo de frontiera fixată de comun acord în 1939 şi URSS-ul să-şi panseze rănile. Mai mulţi agenţi au participat la aceste negocieri, ce au rămas în general secrete. Printre ei, Peter Kleist, ataşat în acelaşi timp de Cabinetul lui Ribbentrop şi de „Biroul Rosenberg”. Kleist, naţionalist german de tradiţie rusofilă în amintirea prieteniei dintre Prusia şi Ţari, va negocia la Stockholm, unde jocul diplomatic va fi strâns şi complex. În capitala suedeză, ruşii sunt deschişi la toate sugestiile; printre ei, ambasadoarea Kollontaï şi diplomatul Semionov. Kleist acţionează în numele Cabinetului Ribbentrop şi al Abwehr-ului lui Canaris (şi nu al „Biroului Rosenberg” care avea în vedere o balcanizare a URSS-ului şi crearea unui puternic stat ucrainean pentru a contrabalansa „Moscovia”). Al doilea protagonist al părţii germane a fost Edgar Klaus, un evreu din Riga care făcea legătura între sovietici şi Abwehr (el nu avea relaţii directe cu instanţele propriu-zis naţional socialiste).

În acest joc mai mult sau mai puţin triangular, sovieticii doreau revenirea la status-quo-ul de dinainte de 1939. Hitler a refuzat toate sugestiile lui Kleist şi a crezut că poate câştiga definitiv bătălia prin cucerirea Stalingradului, cheie a fluviului Volga, a Caucazului şi a Caspicii. Kleist, care ştia că o încetare a ostilităţilor cu Rusia ar fi permis Germaniei să rămână dominantă în Europa şi să-şi îndrepte toate forţele contra britanicilor şi americanilor, trece atunci de partea elementelor active ale rezistenţei anti-hitleriene, chiar dacă este personal dator instanţelor naţional-socialiste! Kleist îi contactează deci pe Adam von Trott zu Solz şi pe fostul ambasador al Reich-ului la Moscova, von der Schulenburg. El nu se adresează comuniştilor şi estimează, fără îndoială odată cu Canaris, că negocierile cu Stalin vor permite realizarea Europei lui Coudenhove-Kalergi (fără Anglia şi fără Rusia), pe care o visau de asemenea şi catolicii. Dar sovieticii nu se adresează nici ei aliaţilor lor teoretici şi privilegiaţi, comuniştii germani: ei pariază pe vechea gardă aristocratică, unde exista încă amintirea alianţei prusacilor şi ruşilor contra lui Napoleon, ca şi cea a neutralităţii tacite a germanilor în timpul Războiului Crimeii. Cum Hitler refuză orice negociere, Stalin, rezistenţa aristocratică, Abwehr-ul şi chiar o parte a gărzii sale pretoriene, SS-ul, decid că el trebuie să dispară. Aici trebuie văzută originea complotului care va duce la atentatul din 20 iulie 1944.

Dar după iarna lui 42-43, sovieticii au revenit la Stalingrad şi au distrus vârful de lance al Wehrmacht-ului, armata a şasea, care încercuia metropola de pe Volga. Partida germană a sovieticilor va fi atunci constituită de „Comitetul Germania Liberă”, cu mareşalul von Paulus şi cu ofiţeri ca von Seydlitz-Kurzbach, toţi prizonieri de război. Stalin nu avea în continuare încredere în comuniştii germani, din rândul cărora a eliminat ideologii nerealişti şi revoluţionarii maximalişti troţkişti, care au ignorat mereu deliberat, din orbire ideologică, noţiunea de „patrie” şi continuităţile istorice multiseculare; finalmente, dictatorul georgian nu l-a păstrat în rezervă, ca bun la toate, decât pe Pieck, un militant care nu şi-a pus niciodată prea multe întrebări. Pieck va face carieră în viitoarea RDG. Stalin nu visa nici un regim comunist pentru Germania post-hitleriană: el dorea o „ordine democratică forte”, cu o putere executivă mai marcată decât sub Republica de la Weimar. Această dorinţă politică a lui Stalin corespunde perfect alegerii sale iniţiale: pariul pe elitele militare, diplomatice şi politice conservatoare, provenind în majoritate din aristocraţie şi din Obrigkeitsstaat-ul[1] prusac. Democraţia germană, care trebuia să vină după Hitler, în opinia lui Stalin, urma să fie de ideologie conservatoare, cu o fluiditate democratică controlată, canalizată şi încadrată de un sistem de educaţie politică strictă.

Britanicii şi americanii au fost surprinşi: ei crezuseră că „Unchiul Joe” va înghiţi fără probleme politica lor maximalistă, ruptă total de uzanţele democratice în vigoare în Europa. Dar Stalin, ca şi Papa şi Bell, episcopul de Chichester, se opuneau principiului revoluţionar al predării necondiţionate pe care Churchill şi Roosevelt au vrut s-o impună Reich-ului (care va rămâne, cum gândea Stalin, în calitate de principiu politic în ciuda prezenţei efemere a unui Hitler). Dacă Roosevelt, făcând apel la dictatura mediatică pe care o controla bine în Statele Unite, a reuşit să-şi reducă adversarii la tăcere, indiferent de ideologie, Churchill a avut mai mari dificultăţi în Anglia. Principalul său adversar era acest Bell, episcop de Chichester. Pentru acesta din urmă, nu se punea problema de a reduce Germania la neant, căci Germania era patria lui Luther şi a protestantismului. Filosofiei predării necondiţionate a lui Churchill, Bell îi opunea noţiunea unei solidarităţi protestante şi-i punea în gardă pe omologii săi olandezi, danezi, norvegieni şi suedezi, ca şi pe interlocutorii săi din rezistenţa germană (Bonhoeffer, Schönfeld, von Moltke), pentru a face faţă belicismului exagerat al lui Churchill, care se exprima prin bombardarea masivă a obiectivelor civile, chiar şi în oraşe mici fără infrastructură industrială importantă. Pentru Bell, viitorul Germaniei nu era nici nazismul nici comunismul, ci o „ordine liberală şi democratică”. Această soluţie, preconizată de episcopul de Chichester, nu era evident acceptabilă de către naţionalismul german tradiţional: ea constituia o întoarcere subtilă la Kleinstaaterei, la mozaicul de state, principate şi ducate, pe care viziunile lui List, Wagner etc. şi pumnul lui Bismarck le şterseseră din centrul continentului nostru. „Ordinea democratică forte” sugerată de Stalin era mai acceptabilă pentru naţionaliştii germani, al căror obiectiv a fost mereu crearea unor instituţii şi a unei paidei puternice pentru a proteja poporul german, substanţa etnică germană, de propriile sale slăbiciuni politice, de lipsa simţului său de decizie, de particularismul său atavic şi de durerile sale morale incapacitante. Astăzi, evident, mulţi observatori naţionalişti constată că federalismul constituţiei din 1949 se înscrie poate destul de bine în tradiţia juridică constituţională germană, dar forma pe care a luat-o, în cursul istoriei RFG-ului, îi relevă natura sa de „concesie”. O concesie a puterilor anglo-saxone…

 

 

În faţa adversarilor capitulării necondiţionate din sânul coaliţiei antihitleriste, rezistenţa germană a rămas în ambiguitate: Beck şi von Hassel sunt pro-occidentali şi vor să urmeze cruciada anti-bolşevică, dar într-un sens creştin; Goerdeler şi von der Schulenburg sunt în favoarea unei păci separate cu Stalin. Claus von Stauffenberg, autorul atentatului din 20 iulie 1944 contra lui Hitler, provenea din cercurile poetico-ezoterice din München, unde poetul Stefan George juca un rol preponderent. Stauffenberg este un idealist, un „cavaler al Germaniei secrete”: el refuză să dialogheze cu „Comitetul Germania Liberă” al lui von Paulus şi von Seydlitz-Kurzbach: „nu putem avea încredere în proclamaţiile făcute din spatele sârmei ghimpate”.

Adepţii unei păci separate cu Stalin, adversari ai deschiderii unui front spre Est, au fost imediat atenţi la propunerile de pace sovietice emise de agenţii la post în Stockholm. Partizanii unei „partide nule” la Est sunt ideologic „anti-occidentali”, aparţinând cercurilor conservatoare rusofile (cum ar fi Juni-Klub sau acei Jungkonservativen din siajul lui Moeller van den Bruck), ligilor naţional-revoluţionare derivate din Wandervogel sau „naţionalismului soldăţesc”. Speranţa lor era de a vedea Wehrmacht-ul retrăgându-se în ordine din teritoriile cucerite în URSS şi de a se replia dincolo de linia de demarcaţie din octombrie 1939 în Polonia. În acest sens interpretează exegeţii contemporani ai operei lui Ernst Jünger faimosul său text de război intitulat „Note caucaziene”. Ernst Jünger percepe aici dificultăţile de a stabiliza un front în imensele stepe de dincolo de Don, unde gigantismul teritoriului interzice o reţea militară ermetică ca într-un peisaj central-european sau de tip picard-champenoise, muncit şi răsmuncit de generaţii şi generaţii de mici ţărani încăpăţânaţi care au ţesut teritoriul cu îngrădituri, proprietăţi, garduri şi construcţii de o rară densitate, permiţând armatelor să se prindă de teren, să se disimuleze sau să întindă ambuscade. Este foarte probabil ca Jünger să fi pledat pentru retragerea  Wehrmacht-ului, sperând, în logica naţional-revoluţionară, care îi era proprie în anii 20 sau 30, şi unde rusofilia politico-diplomatică era foarte prezentă, ca forţele ruseşti şi germane, reconciliate, să interzică pentru totdeauna accesul în „Fortăreaţa Europa”, chiar în „Fortăreaţa Eurasia” puterilor talasocratice, care practică sistematic ceea ce Haushofer numea „politica anacondei”, pentru a sufoca orice veleitate de independenţă pe marginile litorale ale „Marelui Continent” (Europa, India, ţările arabe etc.).

Ernst Jünger redactează notele sale caucaziene în momentul în care Stalingradul cade şi armata a şasea este înecată în sânge, oroare şi zăpadă. Dar în ciuda victoriei de la Stalingrad, care le permite sovieticilor să bareze calea spre Caucaz şi Marea Caspică germanilor şi să impiedice orice manevră în amontele fluviului, Stalin urmează mai departe negocierile sale sperând în continuare să joace o „partidă nulă”. Sovieticii nu pun un termen demersurilor lor decât după întrevederile de la Teheran (28 noimebrie – 1 decembrie 1943). În acel moment, Jünger pare a se fi retras din rezistenţă. În celebrul său interviu din Spiegel din 1982, imediat după ce primise premiul Goethe la Frankfurt, el declara: „Atentatele întăresc regimurile pe care vor să le dărâme, mai ales dacă sunt ratate”. Jünger, fără îndoială ca şi Rommel, refuza logica atentatului. Ceea ce nu a fost cazul cu Claus von Stauffenberg. Deciziile luate de către aliaţii occidentali şi de către sovietici la Teheran au făcut imposibilă revenirea la punctul de pornire, adică la linia de demarcaţie din octombrie 1939 în Polonia. Sovieticii şi anglo-saxonii s-au pus de acord să „transporte dulapul polonez” spre Vest prin cedarea unei zone de ocupaţie permanentă în Silezia şi în Pomerania. În atari condiţii, naţionaliştii germani nu mai puteau negocia iar Stalin era din oficiu prins în logica maximalistă a lui Roosevelt, în vreme ce la început o refuzase. Poporul rus urma să plătească foarte scump această schimbare de politică, favorabilă americanilor.

După 1945, constatând că logica Războiului Rece vizează încercuirea şi izolarea Uniunii Sovietice pentru a o împiedica să ajungă la mările calde, Stalin a reiterat oferta sa Germaniei epuizate şi divizate: unificarea şi neutralitatea, adică libertatea de a-şi alege regimul politic după placul său, mai ales o „ordine democratică forte”. Acesta va fi obiectul „notelor lui Stalin” din 1952. Decesul prematur al Vojd-ului sovietic în 1953 nu a mai permis URSS-ului să continue să joace această carte germană. Hruşciov a denunţat stalinismul, a apăsat pe logica blocurilor pe care Stalin o refuzase şi nu a revenit la antiamericanism decât în momentul afacerii Berlinului (1961) şi a crizei din Cuba (1962). Nu se va mai vorbi despre „notele lui Stalin” decât înainte de perestroika, în timpul manifestaţiilor pacifiste din 1980-1983, când mai multe voci germane au reclamat afirmarea unei neutralităţi în afara oricărei logici de tip bloc. Unii emisari ai lui Gorbaciov vor mai vorbi despre acele note şi după 1985, mai ales germanistul Viatcheslav Dachitchev, care a luat cuvântul peste tot în Germania, chiar şi în câteva cercuri ultra-naţionaliste.

În lumina acestei noi istorii a rezistenţei germane şi a belicismului american, putem să înţelegem într-un mod diferit stalinismul şi anti-stalinismul. Acesta din urmă, de exemplu, serveşte la răspândirea unei mitologii politice false şi artificiale, al cărei obiectiv ultim este să respingă orice formă de concert internaţional bazat pe relaţiile bilaterale, să impună o logică a blocurilor sau o logică mondialistă prin intermediul acestui instrument rooseveltian care este ONU (Coreea, Congo, Irak: mereu fără Rusia!), să stigmatizeze din start orice raport bilateral între o putere medie europeană şi Rusia sovietică (Germania în 1952 şi Franţa lui De Gaulle după evenimentele din Algeria). Antistalinismul este o variantă a discursului mondialist. Diplomaţia stalinistă era, în felul ei şi într-un context foarte particular, păstrătoare a tradiţiilor diplomatice europene.

Bibliografie:

– Dirk BAVENDAMM, Roosevelts Weg zum Krieg. Amerikanische Politik 1914-1939, Herbig, München, 1983.

– Dirk BAVENDAMM, Roosevelts Krieg 1937-45 und das Rätsel von Pearl Harbour, Herbig, München, 1993.

– Valentin FALIN, Zweite Front. Die Interessenkonflikte in der Anti-Hitler-Koalition, Droemer-Knaur, München, 1995.

– Francis FUKUYAMA, La fin de l’histoire et le dernier homme, Flammarion, 1992.

– Klemens von KLEMPERER, German Resistance Against Hitler. The Search for Allies Abroad. 1938-1945,  Oxford University Press/Clarendon Press, 1992-94.

– Theodore H. von LAUE, The World Revolution of Westernization. The Twentieth Century in Global Perspective,  Oxford University Press, 1987.

– Jürgen SCHMÄDEKE/Peter STEINBACH (Hrsg.), Der Widerstand gegen den National-Sozialismus. Die deutsche Gesellschaft und der Widerstand gegen Hitler,  Piper (SP n°1923), München, 1994.

Traducere: Vladimir Muscalu

Sursa: http://robertsteuckers.blogspot.ro/2011/12/normal-0-21-false-false-false_29.html

[1] Statul autoritar (n. tr.)

Stalin’s Fight Against International Communism

Stalin’s Fight Against International Communism

By Kerry Bolton

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com/

Editor’s Note:

This is the first chapter of Kerry Bolton’s new book Stalin: The Enduring Legacy ^[2] (London: Black House Publishing, 2012). The chapter is being reprinted as formatted in the book. Counter-Currents will also run a review of the book, which I highly recommend. 

The notion that Stalin ‘fought communism’ at a glance seems bizarre. However, the contention is neither unique nor new. Early last century the seminal German conservative philosopher-historian Oswald Spengler stated that Communism in Russia would metamorphose into something distinctly Russian which would be quite different from the alien Marxist dogma that had been imposed upon it from outside. Spengler saw Russia as both a danger to Western Civilisation as the leader of a ‘coloured world-revolution’, and conversely as a potential ally of a revived Germany against the plutocracies. Spengler stated of Russia’s potential rejection of Marxism as an alien imposition from the decaying West that,

Race, language, popular customs, religion, in their present form… all or any of them can and will be fundamentally transformed. What we see today then is simply the new kind of life which a vast land has conceived and will presently bring forth. It is not definable in words, nor is its bearer aware of it. Those who attempt to define, establish, lay down a program, are confusing life with a phrase, as does the ruling Bolshevism, which is not sufficiently conscious of its own West-European, Rationalistic and cosmopolitan origin.[1]

Even as he wrote, Bolshevism in the USSR was being fundamentally transformed in the ways Spengler foresaw. The ‘rationalistic’ and ‘cosmopolitan’ origins of Bolshevism were soon being openly repudiated, and a new course was defined by Zhdanov and other Soviet eminences.

Contemporary with Spengler in Weimer Germany, there arose among the ‘Right’ the ‘National Bolshevik’ faction one of whose primary demands was that Germany align with the Soviet Union against the Western plutocracies. From the Soviet side, possibilities of an alliance with the ‘Right’ were far from discounted and high level Soviet sources cultivated contacts with the pro-Russian factions of the German Right including the National Bolsheviks.[2]

German-Soviet friendship societies included many conservatives. In Arbeitsgemeinschaft zum Studium der Sowjetrussichen Planwirtschaft (Arplan)[3] Conservative-Revolutionaries and National Bolsheviks comprised a third of the membership. Bund Geistige Berufe (BGB)[4] was founded in 1931 and was of particular interest to Soviet Russia, according to Soviet documents, which aimed ‘to attract into the orbit of our influence a range of highly placed intellectuals of rightist orientation’.[5]

The profound changes caused Konstantin Rodzaevsky, leader of the Russian Fascist Union among the White Russian émigrés at Harbin, to soberly reassess the USSR and in 1945 he wrote to Stalin:

Not all at once, but step by step we came to this conclusion. We decided that: Stalinism is exactly what we mistakenly called ‘Russian Fascism’. It is our Russian Fascism cleansed of extremes, illusions, and errors.[6]

In the aftermath of World War II many German war veterans, despite the devastating conflagration between Germany and the USSR, and the rampage of the Red Army across Germany with Allied contrivance, were vociferous opponents of any German alliance with the USA against the USSR. Major General Otto E Remer and the Socialist Reich Party were in the forefront of advocating a ‘neutralist’ line for Germany during the ‘Cold War’, while one of their political advisers, the American Spenglerian philosopher Francis Parker Yockey, saw Russian occupation as less culturally debilitating than the ‘spiritual syphilis’ of Hollywood and New York, and recommended the collaboration of European rightists and neo-Fascists with the USSR against the USA.[7] Others of the American Right, such as the Yockeyan and Spenglerian influenced newspaper Common Sense, saw the USSR from the time of Stalin as the primary power in confronting Marxism, and they regarded New York as the real ‘capitol’ of Marxism.[8]

What might be regarded by many as an ‘eccentric’ element from the Right were not alone in seeing that the USSR had undergone a revolutionary transformation. Many of the Left regarded Stalin’s Russia as a travesty of Marxism. The most well-known and vehement was of course Leon Trotsky who condemned Stalin for having ‘betrayed the revolution’ and for reversing doctrinaire Marxism. On the other hand, the USA for decades supported Marxists, and especially Trotskyites, in trying to subvert the USSR during the Cold War. The USA, as the columnists at Common Sense continually insisted, was promoting Marxism, while Stalin was fighting it. This dichotomy between Russian National Bolshevism and US sponsored international Marxism was to having lasting consequences for the post-war world up to the present.

Stalin Purges Marxism

The Moscow Trials purging Trotskyites and other veteran Bolsheviks were merely the most obvious manifestations of Stalin’s struggle against alien Marxism. While much has been written condemning the trials as a modern day version of the Salem witch trials, and while the Soviet methods were often less than judicious the basic allegations against the Trotskyites et al were justified. The trials moreover, were open to the public, including western press, diplomats and jurists. There can be no serious doubt that Trotskyites in alliance with other old Bolsheviks such as Zinoviev and Kameneff were complicit in attempting to overthrow the Soviet state under Stalin. That was after all, the raison d’etre of Trotsky et al, and Trotsky’s hubris could not conceal his aims.[9]

The purging of these anti-Stalinist co-conspirators was only a part of the Stalinist fight against the Old Bolsheviks. Stalin’s relations with Lenin had not been cordial, Lenin accusing him of acting like a ‘Great Russian chauvinist’.[10] Indeed, the ‘Great Russians’ were heralded as the well-spring of Stalin’s Russia, and were elevated to master-race like status during and after the ‘Great Patriotic War’ against Germany. Lenin, near death, regarded Stalin’s demeanour as ‘offensive’, and as not showing automatic obedience. Lenin wished for Stalin to be removed as Bolshevik Party General Secretary.[11]

Dissolving the Comintern

The most symbolic acts of Stalin against International Communism were the elimination of the Association of Old Bolsheviks, and the destruction of the Communist International (Comintern). The Comintern, or Third International, was to be the basis of the world revolution, having been founded in 1919 in Moscow with 52 delegates from 25 countries.[12] Zinoviev headed the Comintern’s Executive Committee.[13] He was replaced by Bukharin in 1926.[14] Both Zinonviev and Bukharin were among the many ‘Old Bolsheviks’ eliminated by Stalin.

Stalin regarded the Comintern with animosity. It seemed to function more as an enemy agency than as a tool of Stalin, or at least that is how Stalin perceived the organisation. Robert Service states that Dimitrov, the head of the Comintern at the time of its dissolution, was accustomed to Stalin’s accusations against it. In 1937 Stalin had barked at him that ‘all of you in Comintern are hand in glove with the enemy’.[15] Dimitrov must have wondered how long he had to live.[16]

Instead of the Communist parties serving as agents of the world revolution, in typically Marxist manner, and the purpose for founding the Comintern, the Communist parties outside Russia were expected to be nationally oriented. In 1941 Stalin stated of this:

The International was created in Marx’s time in the expectation of an approaching international revolution. Comintern was created in Lenin’s time at an analogous moment. Today, national tasks emerge for each country as a supreme priority. Do not hold on tight to what was yesterday.[17]

This was a flagrant repudiation of Marxist orthodoxy, and places Stalinism within the context of National Bolshevism.

The German offensive postponed Stalin’s plans for the elimination of the Comintern, and those operatives who had survived the ‘Great Purge’ were ordered to Ufa, South of the Urals. Dimitrov was sent to Kuibyshev on the Volga. After the Battle of Stalingrad, Stalin returned to the issue of the Comintern, and told Dimitrov on 8 May 1943 to wind up the organisation. Dimitrov was transferred to the International Department of the Bolshevik Party Central Committee.[18] Robert Service suggests that this could have allayed fears among the Allies that Stalin would pursue world revolution in the post-war world. However, Stalin’s suspicion of the Comintern and the liquidation of many of its important operatives indicate fundamental belligerence between the two. In place of proletarian international solidarity, Stalin established an All-Slavic Committee[19] to promote Slavic folkish solidarity, although the inclusion of the Magyars[20] was problematic.

Stalin throughout his reign undertook a vigorous elimination of World Communist leaders. Stalin decimated communist refugees from fascism living in the USSR. While only 5 members of the Politburo of the German Communist Party had been killed under Hitler, in the USSR 7 were liquidated, and 41 out of 68 party leaders. The entire Central Committee of the Polish Communist Party in exile were liquidated, and an estimated 5000 party members were killed. The Polish Communist Party was formally dissolved in 1938. 700 Comintern headquarters staff were purged.[21]

Among the foreign Communist luminaries who were liquidated was Bela Kun, whose psychotic Communist regime in Hungary in 1919 lasted 133 days. Kun fled to the Soviet Union where he oversaw the killing of 50,000 soldiers and civilians attached to the White Army under Wrangle, who had surrendered after being promised amnesty. Kun was a member of the Executive Committee of the Comintern. A favourite of Lenin’s, this bloody lunatic served as a Comintern agent in Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia during the 1920s. In 1938 he was brought before a tribunal and after a brief trial was executed the same day.[22]

Another action of great symbolism was Stalin’s moves against the ‘Old Bolsheviks’, the veterans of the 1917 Revolution. Leon Sedov, Leon Trotsky’s son, in his pamphlet on the Great Purge of the late 1930s, waxed indignant that Stalin ‘coldly orders the shooting of Bolsheviks, former leaders of the Party and the Comintern, and heroes of the Civil War’.[23] ‘The Association of Old Bolsheviks and that of the former political prisoners has been dissolved. They were too strong a reminder of the “cursed” revolutionary past’.[24]

In place of the Comintern the Cominform was established in 1947, for the purpose of instructing Communist parties to campaign against the Marshall Aid programme that was designed to bring war-ravished Europe under US hegemony. ‘European communism was to be redirected’ towards maintaining the gains of the Red Army during World War II. ‘Communist parties in Western Europe could stir up trouble’, against the USA. The Cominform was far removed from being a resurrection of the old Comintern. As to who was invited to the inaugural meeting held at a secluded village in Poland, ‘Stalin… refused a request from Mao Zedong, who obviously thought that the plan was to re-establish the Communist International’. The Spanish and Portuguese parties were not invited, nor were the British, or the Greek Communist Party, which was fighting a civil war against the royalists.[25]

The extent of the ‘fraternity’ between the USSR and the foreign Communists can be gauged from the delegates having not been given prior knowledge of the agenda, and being ‘treated like detainees on arrival’. While Soviet delegates Malenkov and Zhdanov kept in regular communication with Stalin, none of the other delegates were permitted communication with the outside world.[26]

Repudiation of Marxist Doctrine

The implementation of Marxism as a policy upon which to construct a State was of course worthless, and Stalin reversed the doctrinaire Marxism that he had inherited from the Lenin regime. Leon Sedov indignantly stated of this:

In the most diverse areas, the heritage of the October revolution is being liquidated. Revolutionary internationalism gives way to the cult of the fatherland in the strictest sense. And the fatherland means, above all, the authorities. Ranks, decorations and titles have been reintroduced. The officer caste headed by the marshals has been reestablished. The old communist workers are pushed into the background; the working class is divided into different layers; the bureaucracy bases itself on the ‘non-party Bolshevik’, the Stakhanovist, that is, the workers’ aristocracy, on the foreman and, above all, on the specialist and the administrator. The old petit-bourgeois family is being reestablished and idealized in the most middle-class way; despite the general protestations, abortions are prohibited, which, given the difficult material conditions and the primitive state of culture and hygiene, means the enslavement of women, that is, the return to pre-October times. The decree of the October revolution concerning new schools has been annulled. School has been reformed on the model of tsarist Russia: uniforms have been reintroduced for the students, not only to shackle their independence, but also to facilitate their surveillance outside of school. Students are evaluated according to their marks for behaviour, and these favour the docile, servile student, not the lively and independent schoolboy. The fundamental virtue of youth today is the ‘respect for one’s elders’, along with the ‘respect for the uniform’. A whole institute of inspectors has been created to look after the behaviour and morality of the youth.[27]

This is what Leon Sedov, and his father, Leon Trotsky, called the ‘Bonapartist character of Stalinism’.[28] And that is precisely what Stalin represents in history: the Napoleon of the Bolshevik Revolution who reversed the Marxian doctrinal excrescences in a manner analogous to that of Napoleon’s reversal of Jacobin fanaticism after the 1789 French Revolution. Underneath the hypocritical moral outrage about Stalinist ‘repression’, etc.,[29] a number of salient factors emerge regarding Stalin’s repudiation of Marxist-Leninist dogma:

• The ‘fatherland’ or what was called again especially during World War II, ‘Holy Mother Russia’, replaced international class war and world revolution.
• Hierarchy in the military and elsewhere was re-established openly rather than under a hypocritical façade of soviet democracy and equality.
• A new technocratic elite was established, analogous to the principles of German ‘National Bolshevism’.
• The traditional family, the destruction of which is one of the primary aims of Marxism generally[30] and Trotskyism specifically,[31] was re-established.
• Abortion, the liberalisation of which was heralded as a great achievement in woman’s emancipation in the early days of Bolshevik Russia, was reversed.
• A Czarist type discipline was reintroduced to the schools; Leon Sedov condemned this as shackling the free spirit of youth, as if there were any such freedom under the Leninist regime.
• ‘Respect for elders’ was re-established, again anathema to the Marxists who seek the destruction of family life through the alienation of children from parents.[32]

What the Trotskyites and other Marxists object to was Stalin’s establishment the USSR as a powerful ‘nation-state’, and later as an imperial power, rather than as a citadel for world revolution. However, the Trotskyites, more than any other Marxist faction, allied themselves to American imperialism in their hatred of Stalinist Russia, and served as the most enthusiastic partisans of the Cold War.[33] Sedov continued:

Stalin not only bloodily breaks with Bolshevism, with all its traditions and its past, he is also trying to drag Bolshevism and the October revolution through the mud. And he is doing it in the interests of world and domestic reaction. The corpses of Zinoviev and Kamenev must show to the world bourgeoisie that Stalin has broken with the revolution, and must testify to his loyalty and ability to lead a nation-state. The corpses of the old Bolsheviks must prove to the world bourgeoisie that Stalin has in reality radically changed his politics, that the men who entered history as the leaders of revolutionary Bolshevism, the enemies of the bourgeoisie, – are his enemies also. Trotsky, whose name is inseparably linked with that of Lenin as the leader of the October revolution, Trotsky, the founder and leader of the Red Army; Zinoviev and Kamenev, the closest disciples of Lenin, one, president of the Comintern, the other, Lenin’s deputy and member of the Politburo; Smirnov, one of the oldest Bolsheviks, conqueror of Kolchak—today they are being shot and the bourgeoisie of the world must see in this the symbol of a new period. This is the end of the revolution, says Stalin. The world bourgeoisie can and must reckon with Stalin as a serious ally, as the head of a nation-state…. Stalin has abandoned long ago the course toward world revolution.[34]

As history shows, it was not Stalin to whom the ‘world bourgeoisie’ or more aptly, the world plutocracy, looked on as an ally, but leading Trotskyites whose hatred of Stalin and the USSR made them vociferous advocates of American foreign policy.

Family Life Restored

Leon Trotsky is particularly interesting in regard to what he saw as the ‘revolution betrayed’ in his condemnation of Stalinist policies on ‘youth, family, and culture’. Using the term ‘Thermidor’, taken from the French revolutionary era, in his description of Stalinism vis-à-vis the Bolshevik revolution, Trotsky began his critique on family, generational and gender relations. Chapter 7 of The Revolution Betrayed is worth reading in its entirety as an over-view of how Stalin reversed Marxism-Leninism. Whether that is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ is, of course, left to the subjectivity of the reader.[35]

The primary raison d’etre of Marxism for Trotsky personally seems to have been the destruction of religion and of family (as it was for Marx).[36] Hence, the amount of attention Trotsky gives to lamenting the return to traditional family relations under Stalin:

The revolution made a heroic effort to destroy the so-called ‘family hearth’ – that archaic, stuffy and stagnant institution in which the woman of the toiling classes performs galley labor from childhood to death. The place of the family as a shut-in petty enterprise was to be occupied, according to the plans, by a finished system of social care and accommodation: maternity houses, creches, kindergartens, schools, social dining rooms, social laundries, first-aid stations, hospitals, sanatoria, athletic organizations, moving-picture theaters, etc. The complete absorption of the housekeeping functions of the family by institutions of the socialist society, uniting all generations in solidarity and mutual aid, was to bring to woman, and thereby to the loving couple, a real liberation from the thousand-year-old fetters. Up to now this problem of problems has not been solved. The forty million Soviet families remain in their overwhelming majority nests of medievalism, female slavery and hysteria, daily humiliation of children, feminine and childish superstition. We must permit ourselves no illusions on this account. For that very reason, the consecutive changes in the approach to the problem of the family in the Soviet Union best of all characterize the actual nature of Soviet society and the evolution of its ruling stratum.[37]

Marxism, behind the façade of women’s emancipation, ridicules the traditional female role in the family as ‘galley labour’, but does so for the purpose of delivering women to the ‘galley labour’ of the Marxist state. The Marxist solution is to take the child from the parents and substitute parental authority for the State via childcare. As is apparent today, the Marxist ideal regarding the family and children is the same as that of big capitalism. It is typical of the manner by which Marxism, including Communism, converges with plutocracy, as Spengler pointed out soon after the 1917 Revolution in Russia.[38]

Trotsky states, ‘you cannot “abolish” the family; you have to replace it’. The aim was to replace the family with the state apparatus: ‘During the lean years, the workers wherever possible, and in part their families, ate in the factory and other social dining rooms, and this fact was officially regarded as a transition to a socialist form of life’. Trotsky decries the reversal by Stalin of this subversion of the family hearth: ‘The fact is that from the moment of the abolition of the food-card system in 1935, all the better placed workers began to return to the home dining table’. Women as mothers and wives were retuning to the home rather than being dragooned into factories, Trotsky getting increasingly vehement at these reversals of Marxism:

Back to the family hearth! But home cooking and the home washtub, which are now half shamefacedly celebrated by orators and journalists, mean the return of the workers’ wives to their pots and pans that is, to the old slavery.[39]

The original Bolshevik plan was for a new slavery where all would be bound to the factory floor regardless of gender, a now familiar aim of global capitalism, behind the façade of ‘equality’.  Trotsky lamented that the rural family was even stronger: ‘The rural family, bound up not only with home industry but with agriculture, is infinitely more stable and conservative than that of the town’. There had been major reversals in the collectivisation of the peasant families: they were again obtaining most of their food from private lots rather than collectivised farms, and ‘there can no longer be any talk of social dining rooms’. ‘Thus the midget farms, [were] creating a new basis for the domestic hearthstone…’[40]

The pioneering of abortion rights by the Leninist regime was celebrated as a great achievement of Bolshevism, which was, however, reversed by Stalin with the celebration instead of motherhood. In terms that are today conventional throughout the Western world, Trotsky stated that due to the economic burden of children upon women,

…It is just for this reason that the revolutionary power gave women the right to abortion, which in conditions of want and family distress, whatever may be said upon this subject by the eunuchs and old maids of both sexes, is one of her most important civil, political and cultural rights. However, this right of women too, gloomy enough in itself, is under the existing social inequality being converted into a privilege.[41]

The Old Bolsheviks demanded abortion as a means of ‘emancipating women’ from children and family. One can hardly account for the Bolshevik attitude by an appeal to anyone’s ‘rights’ (sic). The answer to the economic hardship of childbearing was surely to eliminate the causes of the hardship. In fact, this was the aim of the Stalinists, Trotsky citing this in condemnation:

One of the members of the highest Soviet court, Soltz, a specialist on matrimonial questions, bases the forthcoming prohibition of abortion on the fact that in a socialist society where there are no unemployed, etc., etc., a woman has no right to decline ‘the joys of motherhood’.[42]

On June 27 1936 a law was passed prohibiting abortion, which Trotsky called the natural and logical fruit of a ‘Thermidorian reaction’.[43] The redemption of the family and motherhood was damned perhaps more vehemently by Trotsky than any other aspect of Stalinism as a repudiation of the ‘ABCs of Communism’, which he stated includes ‘getting women out of the clutches of the family’.

Everybody and everything is dragged into the new course: lawgiver and litterateur, court and militia, newspaper and schoolroom. When a naive and honest communist youth makes bold to write in his paper: ‘You would do better to occupy yourself with solving the problem how woman can get out of the clutches of the family’, he receives in answer a couple of good smacks and – is silent. The ABCs of Communism are declared a ‘leftist excess’. The stupid and stale prejudices of uncultured philistines are resurrected in the name of a new morale. And what is happening in daily life in all the nooks and corners of this measureless country? The press reflects only in a faint degree the depth of the Thermidorian reaction in the sphere of the family.[44]

A ‘new’ or what we might better call traditional ‘morale’ had returned. Marriage and family were being revived in contrast to the laws of early Bolshevik rule:

The lyric, academical and other ‘friends of the Soviet Union’ have eyes in order to see nothing. The marriage and family laws established by the October revolution, once the object of its legitimate pride, are being made over and mutilated by vast borrowings from the law treasuries of the bourgeois countries. And as though on purpose to stamp treachery with ridicule, the same arguments which were earlier advanced in favor of unconditional freedom of divorce and abortion – ‘the liberation of women’, ‘defense of the rights of personality’, ‘protection of motherhood’ – are repeated now in favor of their limitation and complete prohibition.[45]

Trotsky proudly stated that the Bolsheviks had sought to alienate children from their parents, but under Stalin parents resumed their responsibilities as the guardians of their children’s welfare, rather than the role being allotted to factory crèches. It seems, that in this respect at least, Stalinist Russia was less a Marxian-Bolshevik state than the present day capitalist states which insist that mothers should leave their children to the upbringing of crèches while they are forced to work; and ironically those most vocal in demanding such polices are often regarded as ‘right-wing’.

Trotsky lauded the policy of the early Bolshevik state, to the point where the state withdrew support from parents

While the hope still lived of concentrating the education of the new generations in the hands of the state, the government was not only unconcerned about supporting the authority of the ‘elders’, and, in particular of the mother and father, but on the contrary tried its best to separate the children from the family, in order thus to protect them from the traditions of a stagnant mode of life.[46]

Trotsky portrayed the early Bolshevik experiments as the saving of children from ‘drunken fathers or religious mothers’; ‘a shaking of parental authority to its very foundations’.[47]

Stalinist Russia also reversed the original Bolshevik education policy that had been based on ‘progressive’ American concepts and returned authority to the schools. In speaking of the campaign against decadence in music,[48] Andrei Zhdanov, Stalin’s cultural adviser, recalled the original Bolshevik education policy, and disparaged it as ‘very leftish’:

At one time, you remember, elementary and secondary schools went in for the ‘laboratory brigade’ method and the ‘Dalton plan’,[49] which reduced the role of the teacher in the schools to a minimum and gave each pupil the right to set the theme of classwork at the beginning of each lesson. On arriving in the classroom, the teacher would ask the pupils ‘What shall we study today?’ The pupils would reply: ‘Tell us about the Arctic’, ‘Tell us about the Antarctic’, ‘Tell us about Chapayev’, ‘Tell us about Dneprostroi’. The teacher had to follow the lead of these demands. This was called the ‘laboratory brigade method’, but actually it amounted to turning the organisation of schooling completely topsy-turvy. The pupils became the directing force, and the teacher followed their lead. Once we had ‘loose-leaf textbooks’, and the five point system of marks was abandoned. All these things were novelties, but I ask you, did these novelties stand for progress?

The Party cancelled all these ‘novelties’, as you know. Why? Because these ‘novelties’, in form very ‘leftish’, were in actual fact extremely reactionary and made for the nullification of the school.[50]

One observer visiting the USSR explained:

Theories of education were numerous. Every kind of educational system and experiment was tried—the Dalton Plan, the Project Method, the Brigade Laboratory and the like. Examinations were abolished and then reinstated; though with a vital difference. Examinations in the Soviet Union serve as a test for scholarship, not as a door to educational privilege.[51]

In particular the amorality inherent in Marxism was reversed under Stalinism. Richard Overy sates of this process:

Changing attitudes to behaviour and social environment under Stalin went hand-in-hand with a changing attitude towards the family… Unlike family policy in the 1920s, which assumed the gradual breakdown of the conventional family unit as the state supplied education and social support of the young, and men and women sought more collective modes of daily life, social policy under Stalin reinstated the family as the central social unit, and proper parental care as the model environment for the new Soviet generation. Family policy was driven by two primary motives: to expand the birth rate and to provide a more stable social context in a period of rapid social change. Mothers were respected as heroic socialist models in their own right and motherhood was defined as a socialist duty. In 1944 medals were introduced for women who had answered the call: Motherhood medal, Second Class for five children, First Class for six; medals of Motherhood Glory in three classes for seven, eight or nine offspring, for ten or more, mothers were justly nominated Heroine Mother of the Soviet Union, and an average of 5,000 a year won this highest accolade, and a diploma from the Soviet President himself.[52]

No longer were husband and wife disparaged as the ‘drunken father’ and the ‘religious mother’, from whom the child must be ‘emancipated’ and placed under state jurisdiction, as Trotsky and the other Old Bolshevik reprobates attempted. Professor Overy states, rather, that ‘the ideal family was defined in socialist-realist terms as large, harmonious and hardworking’. ‘Free love and sexual licence’, the moral nihilism encouraged by Bolshevism during its early phase, was being described in Pravda in 1936 as ‘altogether bourgeois’.[53]

In 1934 traditional marriage was reintroduced, and wedding rings, banned since the 1920s, were again produced. The austere and depressing atmosphere of the old Bolshevik marriage ceremony was replaced with more festive and prolonged celebration. Divorce, which the Bolsheviks had made easy, causing thousands of men to leave their families, was discouraged by raising fees. Absentee fathers were obliged to pay half their earnings for the upkeep of their families. Homosexuality, decriminalised in 1922, was recriminalised in 1934. Abortion, legalised in 1920, was outlawed in 1936, with abortionists liable to imprisonment from one to three years, while women seeking termination could be fined up to 300 roubles.[54] The exception was that those with hereditary illnesses could apply for abortion.[55]

Kulturkampf

The antithesis between Marxist orthodoxy and Stalinism is nowhere better seen than in the attitudes towards the family, as related above, and culture.

Andrei Zhdanov, the primary theoretician on culture in Stalinist Russia, was an inveterate opponent of ‘formalism’ and modernism in the arts. ‘Socialist-realism’, as Soviet culture was termed from 1932,[56] was formulated that year by Maxim Gorky, head of the Union of Soviet Writers.[57] It was heroic, folkish and organic. The individual artist was the conveyor of the folk-soul, in contrast to the art of Western decline, dismissively described in the USSR as ‘bourgeoisie formalism’.[58]

The original Bolshevik vision of a mass democratic art, organised as ‘Proletkult’, which recruited thousands of workers to be trained as artists and writers, as one would train workers to operate a factory conveyor built, was replaced by the genius of the individual expressing the soul of the people. While in The West the extreme Left and its wealthy patrons championed various forms of modernism,[59] in the USSR they were marginalized at best, resulting in the suicide for example of the Russian ‘Constructivist’ Mayakovsky. The revitalisation of Russian-Soviet art received its primary impetus in 1946 with the launching of Zhdanovschina.[60]

The classical composers from the Czarist era, such as Tchaikovsky, Glinka sand Borodin, were revived, after being sidelined in the early years of Bolshevism in favour of modernism, as were great non-Russian composers such as Beethoven, Brahms and Schubert.[61] Maxim Gorky continued to be celebrated as ‘the founder of Soviet literature and he continued to visit the USSR, despite his having moved to Fascist Italy. He returned to Russia in 1933.[62] Modernists who had been fêted in the early days of Bolshevism, such as the playwright, Nikolai Erdman, were relegated to irrelevance by the 1930s.[63]

Jazz and the associated types of dancing were condemned as bourgeoisie degeneracy.[64]

Zhdanov’s speech to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) intended primarily to lay the foundations of Soviet music, represents one of the most cogent recent attempts to define culture. Other than some sparse references to Marx, Lenin and internationalism, the Zhdanov speech should rank alongside T S Eliot’s Notes Towards A Definition of Culture[65] as a seminal conservative statement on culture. The Zhandov speech also helped set the foundation for the campaign against ‘rootless cosmopolitanism’ that was launched several years later. Zhdandov’s premises for a Soviet music were based on the classical and the organic connexion with the folk, striving for excellence, and expressing lofty values, rejecting modernism as detached from folk and tradition.

And, indeed, we are faced with a very acute, although outwardly concealed struggle between two trends in Soviet music. One trend represents the healthy, progressive principle in Soviet music, based upon recognition of the tremendous role of the classical heritage, and, in particular, the traditions of the Russian musical school, on the combination of lofty idea content in music, its truthfulness and realism, with profound, organic ties with the people and their music and songs – all this combined with a high degree of professional mastery. The other trend is that of formalism, which is alien to Soviet art, and is marked by rejection of the classical heritage under the guise of seeming novelty, by rejection of popular music, by rejection of service to the people in preference for catering to the highly individualistic emotions of a small group of select aesthetes.[66]

While some in the Proletkult, founded in 1917 were of Futurist orientation, declaring like the poet Vladimir Kirillov, for example, that ‘In the name of our tomorrow, we will burn Raphael, we will destroy museums, we will trample the flowers of art’, the Proletkult organisation was abolished in 1932,[67] and Soviet culture was re-established on classical foundations. Khdanov was to stress the classical heritage combined with the Russian folk traditions, as the basis for Soviet culture in his address:

Let us examine the question of attitude towards the classical heritage, for instance. Swear as the above-mentioned composers may that they stand with both feet on the soil of the classical heritage, there is nothing to prove that the adherents of the formalistic school are perpetuating and developing the traditions of classical music. Any listener will tell you that the work of the Soviet composers of the formalistic trend is totally unlike classical music. Classical music is characterised by its truthfulness and realism, by the ability to attain to unity of brilliant artistic form with profound content, to combine great mastery with simplicity and comprehensibility. Classical music in general, and Russian classical music in particular, are strangers to formalism and crude naturalism. They are marked by lofty idea content, based upon recognition of the musical art of the peoples as the wellspring of classical music, by profound respect and love for the people, their music and songs.[68]

Zhdanov’s analysis of modernism in music and his definition of classic culture is eminently relevant for the present state of Western cultural degeneracy:

What a step back from the highroad of musical development our formalists make when, undermining the bulwarks of real music, they compose false and ugly music, permeated with idealistic emotions, alien to the wide masses of people, and catering not to the millions of Soviet people, but to the few, to a score or more of chosen ones, to the ‘elite’! How this differs from Glinka, Chaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Dargomyjsky and Mussorgsky, who regarded the ability to express the spirit and character of the people in their works as the foundation of their artistic growth. Neglect of the demands of the people, their spirit and art means that the formalistic trend in music is definitely anti-popular in character.[69]

Zhdanov addressed a tendency in Russia that has thrived in The West: that of the ever new and the ‘theoretical’ that is supposedly so profound as to be beyond the understanding of all but depraved, pretentious or commodity-driven artistic coteries in claiming that only future generations will widely understand these artistic vanguards. However, Stalinist Russia repudiated the nonsense; and exposed the emperor as having no clothes:

It is simply a terrible thing if the ‘theory’ that ‘we will be understood fifty or a hundred years hence’, that ‘our contemporaries may not understand us, but posterity will’ is current among a certain section of Soviet composers. If this altitude has become habitual, it is a very dangerous habit.[70]

For Zhdanov, and consequently for the USSR, the classics were a folkish manifestation arising from the soul of the Russian people, rather than being dismissed in Marxian manner as merely products of bourgeoisie culture. In fact, as indicated previously, it was modernism that was regarded as a manifestation of ‘bourgeois decadence’. Zhandov castigated the modernists as elitist, aloof, or better said, alienated from the folk. On the other hand the great Russian classicists, despite their class origins, were upheld as paragons of the Russian folk culture:

Remember how the classics felt about the needs of the people. We have begun to forget in what striking language the composers of the Big Five,[71] and the great music critic Stasov, who was affiliated with them, spoke of the popular element in music. We have begun to forget Glinka’s wonderful words about the ties between the people and artists: “Music is created by the people and we artists only arrange it.” We are forgetting that the great master did not stand aloof from any genres if these genres helped to bring music closer to the wide masses of people. You, on the other hand, hold aloof even from such a genre as the opera; you regard the opera as secondary, opposing it to instrumental symphony music, to say nothing of the fact that you look down on song, choral and concert music, considering it a disgrace to stoop to it and satisfy the demands of the people. Yet Mussorgsky adapted the music of the Hopak, while Glinka used the Komarinsky for one of his finest compositions. Evidently, we shall have to admit that the landlord Glinka, the official Serov and the aristocrat Stasov were more democratic than you. This is paradoxical, but it is a fact. Solemn vows that you are all for popular music are not enough. If you are, why do you make so little use of folk melodies in your musical works? Why are the defects, which were criticised long ago by Serov, when he said that ‘learned’, that is, professional, music was developing parallel with and independently of folk music, repeating themselves? Can we really say that our instrumental symphony music is developing in close interaction with folk music – be it song, concert or choral music? No, we cannot say that. On the contrary, a gulf has unquestionably arisen here as the result of the underestimation of folk music by our symphony composers. Let me remind you of how Serov defined his attitude to folk music. I am referring to his article The Music of South Russian Songs in which he said: ‘Folk songs, as musical organisms, are by no means the work of individual musical talents, but the productions of a whole nation; their entire structure distinguishes them from the artificial music written in conscious imitation of previous examples, written as the products of definite schools, science, routine and reflexes. They are flowers that grow naturally in a given locale, that have appeared in the world of themselves and sprung to full beauty without the least thought of authorship or composition, and consequently, with little resemblance to the hothouse products of learned compositional activity’. That is why the naivete of creation, and that (as Gogol aptly expressed it in Dead Souls) lofty wisdom of simplicity which is the main charm and main secret of every artistic work are most strikingly manifest in them.[72]

It is notable that Zhdanov emphasised the basis of culture as an organic flowering from the nation. Of painting Zhandov again attacked the psychotic ‘leftist’ influences:

Or take this example. An Academy of Fine Arts was organised not so long ago. Painting is your sister, one of the muses. At one time, as you know, bourgeois influences were very strong in painting. They cropped up time and again under the most ‘leftist’ flags, giving themselves such tags as futurism, cubism, modernism; ‘stagnant academism’ was ‘overthrown’, and novelty proclaimed. This novelty expressed itself in insane carryings on, as for instance, when a girl was depicted with one head on forty legs, with one eye turned towards us, and the other towards Arzamas. How did all this end? In the complete crash of the ‘new trend’. The Party fully restored the significance of the classical heritage of Repin, Briullov, Vereshchagin, Vasnetsov and Surikov. Did we do right in reinstating the treasures of classical painting, and routing the liquidators of painting?[73]

The extended discussion here on Russian culture under Stalin is due to the importance that the culture-war between the USSR and the USA took, having repercussions that were not only world-wide but lasting.

Notes

[1] Oswald Spengler, The Hour of Decision (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1963), 61.

[2] K R Bolton, ‘Jünger and National-Bolshevism’ in Jünger: Thoughts & Perspectives Vol. XI (London: Black Front Press, 2012).

[3] Association for the Study of the Planned Economy of Soviet Russia.

[4] League of Professional Intellectuals.

[5] K R Bolton, ‘Jünger and National-Bolshevism’, op. cit.

[6] Cited by John J Stephan, The Russian Fascists (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 338.

[7] K R Bolton, ‘Francis Parker Yockey: Stalin’s Fascist Advocate’, International Journal of Russian Studies, Issue No. 6, 2010, http://www.radtr.net/dergi/sayi6/bolton6.htm ^[3]

[8] K R Bolton, ‘Cold War Axis: Soviet Anti-Zionism and the American Right’’ see Appendix II below.

[9] See Chapter III: ‘The Moscow Trials in Historical Context’.

[10] R Service, Comrades: Communism: A World History (London: Pan MacMillan, 2008), 97.

[11] Ibid., 98.

[12] Ibid., 107.

[13] Ibid., 109.

[14] Ibid., 116.

[15] G Dimitrov, Dimitrov and Stalin 1934-1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives, 32, cited by R Service, ibid., 220.

[16] R Service, ibid., 220.

[17] G Dimitrov, op. cit., cited by Service, ibid., 221.

[18] R Service, ibid., 222.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Hungarians.

[21] Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2004), 201.

[22] L I Shvetsova, et al. (eds.), Rasstrel’nye spiski: Moskva, 1937-1941: … Kniga pamiati zhertv politicheskii repressii. (‘The Execution List: Moscow, 1937-1941: … Book of Remembrances of the victims of Political Repression’), (Moscow: Memorial Society, Zven’ia Publishing House, 2000), 229.

[23] L Sedov, ‘Why did Stalin Need this Trial?’, The Red Book on the Moscow Trials, http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/ch01.htm ^[4]

[24] . Ibid., ‘Domestic Political Reasons’.

[25] R Service, op. cit., 240-241.

[26] Ibid., 242.

[27] Ibid.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Given that when Trotsky was empowered under Lenin he established or condoned the methods of jurisprudence, concentration camps, forced labour, and the ‘Red Terror’, that were later to be placed entirely at the feet of Stalin.

[30] Karl Marx, ‘Proletarians and Communists’, The Communist Manifesto, (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 68.

[31] K R Bolton, ‘The State versus Parental Authority’, Journal of Social, Political & Economic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 2, Summer 2011, 197-217.

[32] K Marx, Communist Manifesto, op. cit.

[33] See Chapter V.

[34] L Sedov, op. cit., ‘Reasons of Foreign Policy’.

[35] L Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, Chapter 7, ‘Family, Youth and Culture’, http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1936/revbet/ch07.htm

[36] K R Bolton, ‘The Psychopathology of the Left’, Ab Aeterno, No. 10, Jan,-March 2012, Academy of Social and Political Research (Athens), Paraparaumu, New Zealand. The discussion on Marx and on Trotsky show their pathological hatred of family.

[37] L Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, op. cit., ‘The Thermidor in the Family’.

[38] ‘There is no proletarian, not even a communist, movement that has not operated in the interests of money, in the directions indicated by money, and for the time permitted by money — and that without the idealist amongst its leaders having the slightest suspicion of the fact’. Oswald Spengler, The Decline of The West (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1971),Vol. II, 402.

[39] L Trotsky, op.cit.

[40] Ibid.

[41] Ibid.

[42] Ibid.

[43] Ibid.

[44] Ibid.

[45] Ibid.

[46] Ibid.

[47] Ibid.

[48] See below.

[49] A laudatory article on the ‘Dalton Plan’ states that the Dalton School was founded in New York in 1919 and was one of the most important progressive schools of the time, the Dalton Plan being adopted across the world, including in the USSR. It is described as ‘often chaotic and disorganized, but also intimate, caring, nurturing, and familial’. Interestingly it is described as a synthesis of the theories of John Dewey and Carleton Washburne. ‘Dalton School’, http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1902/Dalton-School.html ^[5]

Dewey along with the Trotsky apologist Sidney Hook (later avid Cold Warrior and winner of the American Medal of Freedom from President Ronald Reagan) organised the campaign to defend Trotsky at the time of the Moscow Purges of the late 1930s. See Chapter II below.

[50] A Zhandov, Speech at the discussion on music to the Central Committee of the Communist Party SU (Bolshevik), February 1948.

[51] Hewlett Johnson, The Socialist Sixth of the World (London: Victor Gollanncz, 1939), Book IV, ‘New Horizons’, http://www.marxists.org/archive/johnson-hewlett/socialistsixth/ch04.htm ^[6]

[52] R Overy, op. cit., 255-256.

[53] Ibid.

[54] Ibid., 257.

[55] Ibid., p. 258.

[56] Ibid., 352.

[57] Ibid., 353.

[58] Ibid.

[59] K R Bolton, Revolution from Above, op. cit., 134-143.

[60] Overy, op.cit., 361.

[61] Ibid., 366-367.

[62] Ibid., 366.

[63] Ibid., 371.

[64] Ibid., 376.

[65] T S Eliot, Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (London: Faber and Faber, 1967).

[66] Zhdanov, op. cit., 6.

[67] Encyclopaedia of Soviet Writers, http://www.sovlit.net/bios/proletkult.html ^[7]

[68] Zhdanov, op. cit., 6-7.

[69] Ibid., 7

[70] Ibid.

[71] The Big Five – a group of Russian composers during the 1860’s: Balakirev, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Cui.

[72] Zhdanov, op. cit., 7-8.

[73] Ibid., 12.

 

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[4] http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/ch01.htm: http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/ch01.htm

[5] http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1902/Dalton-School.html: http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1902/Dalton-School.html

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The Historic Implications and Continuing Ramifications of the Trotsky-Stalin Conflict

Trotsky, Stalin, & the Cold War:
The Historic Implications & Continuing Ramifications of the Trotsky-Stalin Conflict

By Kerry Bolton

Ex; http://www.counter-currents.com/  

Editor’s Note:

This is the second of two chapters on the Moscow Trials that we are reprinting from Kerry Bolton’s new book Stalin: The Enduring Legacy ^[2] (London: Black House Publishing, 2012). The chapters are reprinted as formatted in the book. Counter-Currents will also run a review of the book, which I highly recommend. 

The Moscow Trials were symptomatic of a great divide that had occurred in Bolshevism. The alliance with Stalin during World War II had formed an assumption among US internationalists that after the Axis defeat a ‘new world order’ would emerge via the United Nations Organisation. This assumption was ill-founded, and the result was the Cold War. Trotskyists emerged as avid Cold Warriors dialectically concluding that the USSR represented the primary obstacle to world socialism. This essay examines the dialectical process by which major factions of Trotskyism became, in Stalinist parlance, a ‘tool of foreign powers and of world capitalism.’

One of the major accusations against Trotsky and alleged Trotskyists during the Moscow Trials of 1936-1938 was that they were agents of foreign capital and foreign powers, including intelligence agencies, and were engaged in sabotage against the Soviet State. In particular, with the advent of Nazi Germany in 1933, Stalin sought to show that in the event of war, which he regarded as inevitable, the Trotskyist network in the USSR would serve as a fifth column for Germany.

The background of these trials has been examined in Chapter III.

Stalin Correct in Fundamental Accusations Against Trotskyites

What is significant is that Khrushchev did concede that Stalin was correct in his fundamental allegation that the Trotskyists, Bukharinites et al represented a faction that sought the ‘restoration of capitalism and capitulation to the world bourgeoisie’. However Khrushchev and even Stalin could not go far enough in their denunciation of Trotskyists et al as seeking to ‘restore capitalism’ and as being agents of foreign powers. To expose the full facts in regard to such accusations would also mean to expose some unpalatable, hidden factors of the Bolshevik Revolution itself, and of Lenin; which would undermine the whole edifice upon which Soviet authority rested – the October 1917 Revolution. Lenin, and Trotsky in particular, had intricate associations with many un-proletarian individuals and interests.

The fact of behind the scenes machinations between the Bolsheviks and international finance was commented upon publicly by two very well-positioned but quite different sources: Henry Wickham Steed, conservative editor of The London Times, and Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labour.

In a first-hand account of the Peace Conference of 1919 Wickham Steed stated that proceedings were interrupted by the return from Moscow of William C Bullitt and Lincoln Steffens, ‘who had been sent to Russia towards the middle of February by Colonel House[1] and Mr. Lansing, for the purpose of studying conditions, political and economic, therein for the benefit of the American Commissioners plenipotentiary to negotiate peace.’[2] Steed stated specifically and at some length that international finance was behind the move for recognition of the Bolshevik regime and other moves in favour of the Bolsheviks, stating that: ‘Potent international financial interests were at work in favour of the immediate recognition of the Bolshevists.’[3] In return for diplomatic recognition Tchitcherin, the Bolshevist Commissary for Foreign Affairs, was offering ‘extensive commercial and economic concessions.’[4]

For his part, Samuel Gompers, the American labour leader, was vehemently opposed to the Bolsheviks and any recognition or commercial transactions, stating to the press in regard to negotiations at the international economic conference at Genoa, that a group of ‘predatory international financiers’ were working for the recognition of the Bolshevik regime for the opening up of resources for exploitation. Gompers described this as an ‘Anglo-American-German banking group’. He also commented that prominent Americans who had a history of anti-labour attitudes were advocating recognition of the Bolshevik regime.[5]

Trotsky’s Banking Connections

What is of significance here however is that Trotsky in particular was the focus of attention by many individuals acting on behalf not only of foreign powers but of international financial institutions. Hence while Stalin and even Khrushchev could aver to the association of Trotsky with foreign powers and even – albeit vaguely – with seeking the ‘restoration of capitalism and capitulation to the world bourgeoisie’, to trace the links more specifically to international finance would inevitably lead to the association also of the Bolshevik regime per se to those same sources, thus undermining the founding myth of the USSR as being the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’.

These associations between Trotsky and international finance, as well as foreign intelligence services, have been meticulously documented by Dr Richard Spence.[6] Spence states that ‘Trotsky was the recipient of mysterious financial assistance and was a person of keen interest to German, Russian and British agents’. Such contentions are very similar to the charges against Trotsky et al at the Moscow Trials, and there are details and personalities involved, said to have been extracted under torture and threats, that are in fact confirmed by Spence, who traces Trotsky’s patronage as far back as 1916 when he was an exile from Czarist Russia and was being expelled from a succession of countries in Europe before finding his way to the USA, prior to his return to Russia in 1917 to play his part in the Revolution. Expelled from France to Spain, Trotsky was locked up as a ‘terrorist agitator’ for three and a half days in comfortable conditions.[7] Ernst Bark, perhaps with the use of German funds, arranged Trotsky’s release and his transfer to Cadiz to await passage with his family to New York and paid for first class passage on the SS Montserrat. Bark was cousin of the Czar’s minister of finance Petr Bark who, despite his service to the Czar, had the pro-German, pro-Bolshevik banker Olof Aschberg, of the Nya Banken, Sweden, as his financial agent for his New York dealings. A report reaching US Military Intelligence in 1918 stated that Trotsky had been ‘bought by the Germans’, and that he was organising the Bolshevik[8] movement with Parvus.

From being penniless in Spain to his arrival in New York, Trotsky had arrived with $500 which Spence states is today’s equivalent to about $10,000, although Trotsky liked to depict himself as continuing in proletarian poverty. Immigration authorities also noted that his place of residence would be the less than proletarian Hotel Astor in Times Square.

In New York the Trotskys lived in a Bronx apartment with all the mod-coms of the day. Employed by Novyi Mir, and was hosted by Dr Julius Hammer, a Bolshevik who combined revolution with an opulent lifestyle. Hammer was probably the mysterious ‘Dr M’ referred to by Trotsky in his memoirs, who provided the Trotskys with sightseeing jaunts in his chauffeured car.[9]

One of the main contacts for Trotsky was a maternal uncle, banker and businessman Abram Zhivotovskii. In 1915 Zhivotovskii was jailed in Russia for trading with Germany. The US State Department described Zhivotovskii as outwardly ‘very anti-Bolshevik’, but who had laundered money to the Bolsheviks and other socialist organizations.[10] He seems to have played a double role in moneymaking, working as a financial agent for both Germans and Allies. During the war he maintained an office in Japan under the management of a nephew Iosif Zhivotovskii, who had served as secretary to Sidney Reilly, the so-called ‘British Ace of Spies’ who nonetheless also seems to have been a duplicitous character in dealing with Germany. Spence mentions that Reilly, who had a business in the USA, had gone to Japan when Trotsky was in Spain, and arrived back in the USA around the time of Trotsky’s arrival, the possibility being that Reilly had acquired funds from Trotsky’s uncle to give to his nephew in New York. Another Reilly association with Zhivotovskii was via Alexander Weinstein, who had been Zhivotovskii’s agent in London, and had joined Reilly in 1916. He was supposedly a loyal Czarist but was identified by American Military Intelligence as a Bolshevik.[11] Of further interest is that Alexander’s brother Gregory was business manager of Novyi Mir, the newspaper that employed Trotsky while he was in New York. Reilly and Weinstein were also associated with Benny Sverdlov, a Russian arms broker who was the brother of Yakov Sverdlov, the future Soviet commissar.

These multiple connections between Trotsky and Reilly’s associates are significant here in that one of the accusations raised during the Moscow Trials was that the Trotskyists had had dealings with ‘British spy’ Sidney Reilly.

The dealings of Sir William Wiseman, British Military Intelligence chief in the USA, and his deputy Norman Thwaites, with Reilly and associates were concealed even from other British agencies.[12] Wiseman had kept Trotsky under surveillance in New York. Trotsky secured a visa from the British consulate to proceed to Russia via Nova Scotia and Scandinavia. The Passport Control Section of the British Consulate was under the direction of Thwaites. Trotsky was to remark on his arrival in Russia about the helpful attitude of consular officials, despite his detention as a possible German agent by Canadian authorities at Nova Scotia. Trotsky had been able to pay for tickets aboard the Kristianiafiord for himself and his family, and also for a small entourage. What is additionally interesting about Wiseman is that he was closely associated with banking interests, and around 1921 joined Kuhn, Loeb and Co.[13] In 1955 Wiseman launched his own international bank with investments from Kuhn, Loeb & Co.; Rothschild; Rockefeller; Warburg firms, et al[14]. He was thus very close to the international banking dynasties throughout much of his life.

To return to the Kristianiafiord however, on board with Trotsky and his entourage, first class, were Robert Jivotovsky (Zhivotovskii), likely to have been another Trotsky cousin; Israel Fundaminsky, whom Trotsky regarded as a British agent, and Andrei Kalpaschnikoff, who acted as translator when Trotsky was being questioned by British authorities at Nova Scotia. Kalpaschnikoff was closely associated with Vladimir Rogovine, who worked for Weinstein and Reilly. Kalpaschnikoff was also associated with John MacGregor Grant, a friend and business partner of both Reilly and Olof Aschberg. We can therefore see an intricate connection between British super-spy Reilly, and bankers such as Aschberg, who served as a conduit of funds to the Bolsheviks, and Zhivotovskii via Alexander Weinstein.

When Trotsky and several of his entourage were arrested on 29 March at Nova Scotia and questioned by authorities regarding associations with Germany this could well have been an act to dispel any suspicions that Trotsky might be serving British interests. The British had the option of returning him to New York but allowed him to proceed to Russia.[15]

The attitude of Wiseman towards the Bolsheviks once they had achieved nominal power was one of urging recognition, Wiseman cabling President Wilson’s principal adviser Col. Edward House on 1 May 1918 that the allies should intervene at the invitation of the Bolsheviks and help organise the Bolshevik army then fighting the White Armies during the Civil War.[16] This would accord with the aim of certain international bankers to secure recognition of the Bolshevik regime, as noted by both Gompers and Steed.

The financial interests in the USA that formed around the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), founded by presidential adviser Col. Edward M House as a foreign policy think tank of businessmen, politicans and intellectuals, were clamouring for recognition of the Soviets. The CFR issued a report on Bolshevik Russia in 1923, prompted by Lenin’s ‘New Economic Policy’. The report repudiated anti-Bolshevik attitudes and fears that Bolshevism would be spread to other countries (although it had already had a brief but bloody reign in Hungary and revolts in German). CFR historian Peter Grosse writes that the report stated that,

the Bolsheviks were on their way to ‘sanity and sound business practices,’ the Council study group concluded, but the welcome to foreign concessionaires would likely be short-lived…. Thus, the Council experts recommended in March 1923 that American businessmen get into Russia while Lenin’s invitation held good…[17]

Armand Hammer, head of Occidental Petroleum, son of the aforementioned Dr Julius Hammer who had been the Trotsky family’s host in New York, was a globetrotting plutocrat who mixed with the political and business elites of the world for decades. Hammer was in intimate contact with every Soviet leader from Lenin to Gorbachev — except for Stalin.[18] This omission is indicative of the rift that had occurred between the USSR and Western financial and industrial interests with the assumption of Stalin and the defeat of Trotsky.

The CFR report on the USSR that advised American business to get in quick before the situation changed, was prescient. In 1921 Hammer was in the USSR sewing up business deals. Hammer met Trotsky, who asked him whether ‘financial circles in the USA regard Russia as a desirable field of investment?’ Trotsky continued:

Inasmuch as Russia had its Revolution, capital was really safer there than anywhere else because, ‘whatever should happen abroad, the Soviet would adhere to any agreements it might make. Suppose one of your Americans invests money in Russia. When the Revolution comes to America, his property will of course be nationalised, but his agreement with us will hold good and he will thus be in a much more favourable position than the rest of his fellow capitalists.’[19] In contrast to the obliging Trotsky who was willing to guarantee the wealth and investments of Big Business, Hammer said of Stalin:

I never met Stalin and I never had any dealing with him. However it was perfectly clear to me in 1930 that Stalin was not a man with whom you could do business. Stalin believed that the state was capable of running everything, without the support of foreign concessionaires and private enterprise. That was the main reason why I left Moscow: I could see that I would soon be unable to do business there…[20]

As for Trotsky’s attitude toward capitalist investment, were the charges brought against Trotsky et al during the Moscow Trials wholly cynical efforts to disparage and eliminate the perceived opposition to Stalin’s authority, or was there at least some factual basis to the charge that the Trotskyist-Left and Bukharin-Right blocs sought to ‘restore capitalism’ to the USSR? It is of interest in this respect to note that even according to one of Trotsky’s present-day exponents, David North, Trotsky ‘placed greater emphasis than any other Soviet leader of his time on the overriding importance of close economic links between the USSR and the world capitalist market’. North speaking to an Australian Trotskyist conference went on to state of Trotsky’s attitude:

Soviet economic development, he insisted, required both access to the resources of the world market and the intelligent utilisation of the international division of labour. The development of economic planning required at minimum a knowledge of competitive advantage and efficiencies at the international level. It served no rational economic purpose for the USSR to make a virtue of frittering away its own limited resources in a vain effort to duplicate on Soviet soil what it could obtain at far less cost on the world capitalist market…. It is helpful to keep in mind that Trotsky belonged to a generation of Russian Marxists who had utilised the opportunity provided by revolutionary exile to carefully observe and study the workings of the capitalist system in the advanced countries. They were familiar not only with the oft-described ‘horrors’ of capitalism, but also with its positive achievements. … Trotsky argued that a vital precondition for the development of the Soviet economy along socialist lines was its assimilation of the basic techniques of capitalist management, organisation, accounting and production.[21]

It was against this background that during the latter half of the 1930s Stalin acted against the Trotsky and Bukharin blocs as agents of world capitalism and foreign powers. The most cogent defence of the Moscow Trials, The Great Conspiracy Against Russia,[22] was written by two American journalists, Albert E Kahn and Michael Sayers, and carried an endorsement by former US ambassador to the USSR, Joseph Davis, who had witnessed the trials.

Among the charges against Trotsky was that he was in contact with British Intelligence operatives, and was conspiring against Lenin. This is not altogether implausible. Lenin and the Bolshevik faction were in favour of a separate peace between Russia and Germany. Lenin and his entourage had been provided with funds and transport by the German General Staff to travel back to Russia,[23] while Trotsky’s return from New York to Russia had been facilitated by British and American Intelligence interests. Kahn and Sayers commented that ‘for fourteen years, Trotsky had fiercely opposed the Bolsheviks; then in August 1917, a few months before the Bolshevik Revolution he had joined Lenin’s party and risen to power with it. Within the Bolshevik Party, Trotsky was organizing a Left Opposition to Lenin.’[24]

Trotsky was not well disposed to negotiate peace with German imperialists, and it was a major point of debate among the Allies whether certain socialist revolutionaries could be won over to the Allied cause. Trotsky himself had stated in the offices of Novy Mir just before his departure from New York to Russia that although revolutionists would soon overthrow the Kerensky regime they ‘would not make a separate peace with Germany’.[25] From this perspective it would have made sense for William Wiseman to have intervened and for the British authorities to have let Trotsky proceed after having detained him at Nova Scotia.

American mining magnate and banker Colonel William Boyce Thompson, head of the American Red Cross Mission in Russia,[26] was eager to recruit the Bolsheviks for the Allied cause. He stated his intention of providing $1,000,000 of his own money to assist with Bolshevik propaganda directed at Germany and Austria. [27] Thompson’s insistence that if the Allies recognised the Bolsheviks they would not make a separate peace with Germany,[28] accorded with Trotsky’s own attitude insofar as he also wished to see the war end not with a separate peace but with revolutions that would bring down Germany and Austria. His agenda therefore seems to have been quite distinct from that of Lenin’s, and might point to separate sources of funds that were provided to them.

Trotsky’s actions when the Bolsheviks assumed power were consistent with his declarations, and went against Lenin’s policy of ending the war with Germany. As Foreign Commissar Trotsky had been sent to Brest-Litovsk ‘with categorical instructions from Lenin to sign peace.’[29] Instead he called for a Communist uprising in Germany, and stated that although the Russian army could no longer continue in the war and would demobilise, the Soviets would not sign a peace agreement. After Trotsky’s rhetoric at Brest-Litovsk the Germans launched another assault on the Eastern Front, and the new Red Army found itself still fighting the Germans.

It was at this point that R H Bruce Lockhart, special agent of the British War Cabinet, sought out Trotsky, on the instructions from British Prime Minister Lloyd George.

Lockhart, generally considered the typical anti-Bolshevik Establishment figure, was actually well disposed towards the Bolsheviks and like Colonel Thompson, hoped to win them over to the Allies. At one point his wife warned that his colleagues in Britain thought be might be going ‘Red’. Lockhart wrote of the situation:

Russia was out of the war. Bolshevism would last – certainly as long as the war lasted. I deprecated as sheer folly our militarist propaganda, because it took no account of the war-weariness which had raised the Bolsheviks to the supreme power. In my opinion, we had to take the Bolshevik peace proposals seriously. Our policy should now aim at achieving an anti-German peace in Russia’.[30]

Coincidentally, ‘an anti-German peace in Russia’ seems to precisely describe the aim of Trotsky.

Trotsky intended that the World War would be transformed into a revolutionary war, with the starting point being revolutions in Germany and Austria. This would certainly accord with Colonel Thompson’s intentions to fund Bolshevist propaganda in Germany and Austria with $1,000,000. Thompson was in communication with Trotsky via Raymond Robins, his deputy with the Red Cross Mission, and like him an enthusiast for the Bolshevik regime.[31] Lloyd George had met Thompson and had been won over to the aim of contacting Lenin and Trotsky. Lockhart was instructed to return to Russia to establish ‘unofficial contact with the Bolsheviks’.[32] Lockhart relates that he met Trotsky for two hours at the latter’s office at Smolny. While Lockhart was highly impressed with Trotsky he did not regard the Foreign Commissar as able to weld sufficient influence to replace Lenin. Trotsky’s parting words to Lockhart at this first meeting were: ‘Now is the big opportunity for the Allied Governments’. Thereafter Lockhart saw Trotsky on a daily basis. [33] Lockhart stated that Trotsky was willing to bring Soviet Russia over to Britain:

He considered that war was inevitable. If the Allies would send a promise of support, he informed me that he would sway the decision of the Government in favour of war. I sent several telegrams to London requesting an official message that would enable me to strengthen Trotsky’s hands. No message was sent.[34]

Given Trotsky’s position in regard to Germany, and the statements of Lockhart in his memoirs, the Stalinist accusation is entirely plausible that Trotsky was the focus of Allied support, and would explain why the British expedited Trotsky’s return to Russia. Indeed, Lockhart was to remark that the British view was that they might be able to make use of the dissensions between Trotsky and Lenin, and believed that the Allies could reach an accord with Soviet Russia because of the extravagant peace demands of the Germans.[35] However from what Lockhart sates, it seems that the Allied procrastination in regard to recondition of the Bolsheviks was the uncertainty that they constituted a stable and lasting Government, and that they were suspicious of the Bolshevik intentions towards Germany, with Lenin and Trotsky still widely regarded as German agents. [36]

The period preceding World War II, particularly the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan, served as a catalyst for Stalin’s offensive against Trotskyists and other suspect elements. Trotsky had since his exile been promoted in the West as the great leader of the Bolshevik Revolution[37], while his own background had been one of opportunism, for the most part as an anti-Leninist Menshevik. [38] It was only in August 1917, seeing the situation in Russia, that Trotsky applied for membership of the Bolshevik Party.[39] Trotsky had joined the Bolshevik Party with his entire faction, a faction that remained intact within the Soviet apparatus, and was ready to be activated after Stalin’s election as General Secretary in 1922. Trotsky admits to a revolutionary network from 1923 when he wrote in his 1938 eulogy to his son Leon Sedov: ‘Leon threw himself headlong into the work of the Opposition…Thus, at seventeen, he began the life of a fully conscious revolutionist, quickly grasped the art of conspiratorial work, illegal meetings, and the secret issuing and distribution of Opposition documents. The Komsomol (Communist Youth organization) rapidly developed its own cadres of Opposition leaders.’[40] Hence Trotsky had freely admitted to the fundamental charges of the Stalinist regime: the existence of a widespread Trotskyist ‘conspiracy’. Indeed, as far back as 1921, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party had already passes a resolution banning all ‘factions’ in the Party, specifically warning Trotsky against ‘factional activities’, and condemning the factionalist activities of what the resolution called ‘Trotskyites’. [41]

In 1924 Trotsky met with Boris Savinkov, a Socialist Revolutionary, who had served as head of the terrorist wing, the so-called ‘Fighting Organization’, of the Party, and who had been Deputy Minister of War in the Kerensky Government. After the triumph of the Bolsheviks Savinkov, leaving Russia in 1920, became associated with French and Polish authorities, and with British agents Lockhart[42] and Sidney Reilly. [43] Savinkov was involved in counter-revolutionary activities, in trying to form an army to overthrow the Bolsheviks. Winston Churchill confirms Savinkov’s meeting with Trotsky in 1924, Churchill himself being involved in the anti-Soviet machinations, writing in his Great Contemporaries: ‘In June 1924, Kamenev and Trotsky definitely invited him (Savinkov) to return’.[44]

In 1924 a leading Trotskyite, Christian Rakovsky, arrived in Britain as Soviet Ambassador. According to the testimony at the Moscow Trial during March 1938 Rakovsky admitted to meeting two British agents, Lockhart and Captain Armstrong. Rakovsky is said to have confessed at this trial that Lockhart and Armstrong had told him that he had been permitted entry into Britain because of his association with Trotsky, as they wanted to cultivated relations with the latter. When Rakovsky reported back to Trotsky several months later, Trotsky was alleged to have been interested. In 1926 Rakovsky was transferred to France prior to which he was alleged to have been instructed by Trotsky to seek out contacts with ‘conservatives circles’ who might support an uprising, as Trotsky considered the situation in Russia to be right for a coup. Rakovsky, as instructed, met several French industrialists, including the grain merchant Louis Dreyfus, and the flax merchant Nicole, both Deputies of the French Parliament.[45] Rakovsky in his testimony during the 1936 trial of Bukharin, et al, Rakovsky being one of the defendants, relates the manner by which he was approached by various intelligence agencies, including those of Japan when in 1934 Rakovsky was head of a Soviet Red Cross Delegation.[46] Rakovsky spoke of the difficulty the Trotskyites had in maintaining relations with both British and Japanese intelligence agencies, since the two states were becoming antagonistic over problems in China.[47] Rakovsky explained that: ‘We Trotskyites have to play three cards at the present moment: the German, Japanese and British…’[48] At that time the Trotskyites – or at least Rakovsky – regarded the likelihood of a Japanese attack on the USSR as more likely than a German attack. Rakovsky even then alluded to his belief that an accord between Hitler and Stalin was possible. It seems plausible enough that Trotskyites were indeed looking toward an invasion of the USSR as the means of destabilising the regime during which Trotskyist cells could launch their counter-revolution. Certainly we know from the account of Churchill that Trotsky met the ultra-terrorist Socialist Revolutionary Savinkov, who was himself involved with British Intelligence via Reilly and Lockhart. Rakovsky stated of a possible Hitler-Stalin Pact:

Personally I thought that the possibility was not excluded that Hitler would seek a rapprochement with the government of the USSR. I cited the policy of Richelieu: in his own country he exterminated the Protestants, while in his foreign policy he concluded alliances with the Protestant German princes. The relations between Germany and Poland were still in the stage of their inception at the time. Japan, on the other hand, was a potent aggressor against the USSR. For us Trotskyites the Japanese card was extremely important, but, on the other hand, we should not overrate the importance of Japan as our ally against the Soviet government.[49]

As far as the Stalinist allegations go in regard to the Trotskyists aligning with foreign powers and viewing an invasion of the USSR as a catalyst for revolution, other ultra-Marxists had taken paths far more unlikely. As mentioned Savinkov, who had been one of the most violent of the Socialist Revolutionaries in Czarist Russia, had sought out British assistance in forming a counter-revolutionary army. Savinkov had fled to Poland in 1919 where he tried to organize ‘the evacuation committee’ within the Polish armies then attacking Russia.[50] Savinkov’s colleagues in Poland, Merezhkovsky, and his wife Zinaida Hippius, who had been ardent Socialist Revolutionary propagandists, later became supporters of Mussolini and then of Hitler, in the hope of overthrowing Stalin[51]. Therefore the Stalinist allegation of Trotskyite collusion even with Fascist powers is plausible.

It is the same road that resulted in the alliance of many Trotskyists, Mensheviks and other Leftists with the CIA, and their metamorphoses into ardent Cold Warriors. It is the same road that brought leading American Trotsky apologist Professor Sidney Hook, ‘a lifelong Menshevik’, to the leadership of a major CIA front, the previously considered Congress for Cultural Freedom.

Max Shachtman

Max Shachtman, one of Trotsky’s leading representatives in the USA[52], is pivotal when considering why Trotskyites became ardent Cold Warriors, CIA front men, apologists for US foreign policy, and continue to champion the USA as the only ‘truly revolutionary’ state.

Expelled from the Communist Party USA in 1928 Shachtman co-founded the Communist League and the Socialist Workers Party. He then split to form the Workers Party of the United States in 1940, which became the Independent Socialist League and merged with the Socialist Party in 1958. [53] The Socialist Party factionalised into the Democratic Socialists and the Social Democrats.

Shachtman was of course scathing of the Moscow Trials. His critique is standard, and will not be of concern here. [54] What is of interest is Shachtman’s surpassing of Trotsky himself in his opposition to the USSR, his faction (the so-called ‘Third Camp’) being what he considered as a purified, genuine Trotskyism, which eventuated into apologists for US foreign policy.

The Shachtmanist critique of the USSR was that it had at an early stage been transformed from ‘government ‘bureaucratism to ‘party bureaucratism’.[55] ‘Soviet bureaucratism became party bureaucratism. In increasing number the government official was the party official.’[56] ‘We do not have a workers’ state but a workers’ state with bureaucratic deformations’, Shachtman stated in quoting Trotsky as far back as 1922. And again from Trotsky: ‘We have a bureaucracy not only in the Soviet institutions, but in the institutions of the party’… Shachtman continues: ‘A month later, in a veiled public attack upon Stalin as head of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspection, he repeated his view that the state machine was still “a survival to a large extent of the former bureaucracy … with only a superficial new coat of paint.”’[57]

While in 1937 Shachtman declared that the USSR should nonetheless be defended against aggression from, for example, Nazi Germany and that it was a Stalinist slur to think that Trotsky would be an enemy of the USSR in such circumstances[58], by 1940 Shachtman was at loggerheads with Trotsky himself and the ‘Cannon’[59] group in the Workers Party.

The Trotskyites were agreed that Stalinist Russia had become a ‘degenerated’ workers’ state,’ however the Cannon-Trotsky line and the position of the Fourth International was that should the USSR be attacked by capitalist or fascist powers, because it still had a so-called ‘progressive’ economy based on the nationalisation of property, the USSR must be defended on that basis alone. The Shachtman line, on the other hand, argued from what they considered to be a dialectical position:

Just as it was once necessary, in connection with the trade union problem, to speak concretely of what kind of workers’ state exists in the Soviet Union, so it is necessary to establish, in connection with the present war, the degree of the degeneration of the Soviet state. The dialectical method of treating such questions makes this mandatory upon us. And the degree of the degeneration of the regime cannot be established by abstract reference to the existence of nationalized property, but only by observing the realities of living events.

The Fourth International established, years ago, the fact that the Stalinist regime (even though based upon nationalized property) had degenerated to the point where it was not only capable of conducting reactionary wars against the proletariat and its revolutionary vanguard, and even against colonial peoples, but did in fact conduct such wars. Now, in our opinion, on the basis of the actual course of Stalinist policy (again, even though based upon nationalized property), the Fourth International must establish the fact that the Soviet Union (i.e., the ruling bureaucracy and the armed forces serving it) has degenerated to the point where it is capable of conducting reactionary wars even against capitalist states (Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, now Finland, and tomorrow Rumania and elsewhere). This is the point which forms the nub of our difference with you and with the Cannon faction.[60]

Shachtman now expressed his approach unequivocally:

War is a continuation of politics, and if Stalinist policy, even in the occupied territory where property has been statified, preserves completely its reactionary character, then the war it is conducting is reactionary. In that case, the revolutionary proletariat must refuse to give the Kremlin and its army material and military aid. It must concentrate all efforts on overturning the Stalinist regime. That is not our war! Our war is against the counterrevolutionary bureaucracy at the present time!

In other words, I propose, in the present war, a policy of revolutionary defeatism in the Soviet Union, as explained in the statement of the Minority on the Russian question – and in making this proposal I do not feel myself one whit less a revolutionary class patriot than I have always been.[61]

That was the Shachtmanite line during World War II: that it was better that Nazi Germany defeated Stalin than that the ‘degenerated workers’ state’ should continue to exist. The same thinking emerged during the Cold War, shortly after World War II, when Shachtman began to speak about the threat of Stalinist parties throughout the world as agencies for Soviet policy, a theme that would become a basis of US attitudes towards the USSR:

The Stalinist parties are indeed agents of the Kremlin oligarchy, no matter what country they function in. The interests and the fate of these Stalinist parties are inseparably intertwined with the interests and fate of the Russian bureaucracy. The Stalinist parties are everywhere based upon the power of the Russian bureaucracy, they serve this power, they are dependent upon it, and they cannot live without it.[62]

By 1948 Shachtmanism as a Cold Warrior apologia for American foreign policy was taking shape. In seeing positive signs in the Titoist Yugoslavia break with the USSR, Shachtman wrote:

In the first place, the division in the capitalist camp is, to all practical intents, at an end. In any case, there is nothing like the division that existed from 1939 onward and which gave Stalinist Russia such tremendous room for maneuvering. In spite of all the differences that still exist among them, the capitalist world under American imperialist leadership and drive is developing an increasingly solid front against Russian imperialism.[63]

In other words, Shachtman saw unity among the capitalist states against Stalinist Russia as a positive sign. The overthrow of Stalinism became the first priority of Shachtmanite Trotskyism in the Cold War era, as it had during World War II.

In 1948 Shachtman scathingly attacked the position of the Fourth International in having continued to defend the USSR as a ‘degenerated workers’ state’, and of its mistaken belief that the Stalinist ‘bureaucratic dictatorship’ world fall apart during World War II. He pointed out that Stalinist imperialism had emerged from the war victorious.[64]

From here it was but a short way for the Shachtmanites to embrace the Cold War opposition to the USSR, and for the heirs of this to continue as enthusiasts for US foreign policy to the present-day.

By 1950 Stalinism had become the major problem for world socialism, Shachtman now writing as head of the Independent Socialist League:

The principal new problem faced by Marxian theory, and therewith Marxian practice, is the problem of Stalinism. What once appeared to many to be either an academic or ‘foreign’ problem is now, it should at last be obvious, a decisive problem for all classes in all countries. If it is understood as a purely Russian phenomenon or as a problem ‘in itself,’ it is of course not understood at all.[65]

Natalia Sedova Trotsky

Natalia Sedova, Trotsky’s widow, endorsed the Shachtmanite line, declaring that the American-led alliance against the USSR would have been approved by her late husband. Her letter of resignation to the Fourth International and to the Socialist Workers Party (USA) is worth reproducing in its entirety:

You know quite well that I have not been in political agreement with you for the past five or six years, since the end of the [Second World] war and even earlier. The position you have taken on the important events of recent times shows me that, instead of correcting your earlier errors, you are persisting in them and deepening them. On the road you have taken, you have reached a point where it is no longer possible for me to remain silent or to confine myself to private protests. I must now express my opinions publicly.

The step which I feel obliged to take has been a grave and difficult one for me, and I can only regret it sincerely. But there is no other way. After a great deal of reflections and hesitations over a problem which pained me deeply, I find that I must tell you that I see no other way than to say openly that our disagreements make it impossible for me to remain any longer in your ranks.

The reasons for this final action on my part are known to most of you. I repeat them here briefly only for those to whom they are not familiar, touching only on our fundamentally important differences and not on the differences over matters of daily policy which are related to them or which follow from them.

Obsessed by old and outlived formulas, you continue to regard the Stalinist state as a workers’ state. I cannot and will not follow you in this.

Virtually every year after the beginning of the fight against the usurping Stalinist bureaucracy, L D Trotsky repeated that the regime was moving to the right, under conditions of a lagging world revolution and the seizure of all political positions in Russia by the bureaucracy. Time and again, he pointed out how the consolidation of Stalinism in Russia led to the worsening of the economic, political and social positions of the working class, and the triumph of a tyrannical and privileged aristocracy. If this trend continues, he said, the revolution will be at an end and the restoration of capitalism will be achieved.

That, unfortunately, is what has happened even if in new and unexpected forms. There is hardly a country in the world where the authentic ideas and bearers of socialism are so barbarously hounded. It should be clear to everyone that the revolution has been completely destroyed by Stalinism. Yet you continue to say that under this unspeakable regime, Russia is still a workers’ state. I consider this a blow at socialism. Stalinism and the Stalinist state have nothing whatever in common with a workers’ state or with socialism. They are the worst and the most dangerous enemies of socialism and the working class.

You now hold that the states of Eastern Europe over which Stalinism established its domination during and after the war, are likewise workers’ states. This is equivalent to saying that Stalinism has carried out a revolutionary socialist role. I cannot and will not follow you in this.

After the war and even before it ended, there was a rising revolutionary movement of the masses in these Eastern countries. But it was not these masses that won power and it was not a workers’ state that was established by their struggle. It was the Stalinist counterrevolution that won power, reducing these lands to vassals of the Kremlin by strangling the working masses, their revolutionary struggles and their revolutionary aspirations.

By considering that the Stalinist bureaucracy established workers’ states in these countries, you assign to it a progressive and even revolutionary role. By propagating this monstrous falsehood to the workers’ vanguard, you deny to the Fourth International all the basic reasons for existence as the world party of the socialist revolution. In the past, we always considered Stalinism to be a counterrevolutionary force in every sense of the term. You no longer do so. But I continue to do so.

In 1932 and 1933, the Stalinists, in order to justify their shameless capitulation to Hitlerism, declared that it would matter little if the Fascists came to power because socialism would come after and through the rule of Fascism. Only dehumanized brutes without a shred of socialist thought or spirit could have argued this way. Now, notwithstanding the revolutionary aims which animate you, you maintain that the despotic Stalinist reaction which has triumphed in Europe is one of the roads through which socialism will eventually come. This view marks an irredeemable break with the profoundest convictions always held by our movement and which I continue to share.

I find it impossible to follow you in the question of the Tito regime in Yugoslavia. All the sympathy and support of revolutionists and even of all democrats, should go to the Yugoslav people in their determined resistance to the efforts of Moscow to reduce them and their country to vassalage. Every advantage should be taken of the concessions which the Yugoslav regime now finds itself obliged to make to the people. But your entire press is now devoted to an inexcusable idealization of the Titoist bureaucracy for which no ground exists in the traditions and principles of our movement.

This bureaucracy is only a replica, in a new form, of the old Stalinist bureaucracy. It was trained in the ideas, the politics and morals of the GPU. Its regime differs from Stalin’s in no fundamental regard. It is absurd to believe or to teach that the revolutionary leadership of the Yugoslav people will develop out of this bureaucracy or in any way other than in the course of struggle against it.

Most insupportable of all is the position on the war to which you have committed yourselves. The third world war which threatens humanity confronts the revolutionary movement with the most difficult problems, the most complex situations, the gravest decisions. Our position can be taken only after the most earnest and freest discussions. But in the face of all the events of recent years, you continue to advocate, and to pledge the entire movement to, the defense of the Stalinist state. You are even now supporting the armies of Stalinism in the war which is being endured by the anguished Korean people. I cannot and will not follow you in this.

As far back as 1927, Trotsky, in reply to a disloyal question put to him in the Political Bureau [of the Soviet Communist Party] by Stalin, stated his views as follows: For the socialist fatherland, yes! For the Stalinist regime, no! That was in 1927! Now, twenty-three years later Stalin has left nothing of the socialist fatherland. It has been replaced by the enslavement and degradation of the people by the Stalinist autocracy. This is the state you propose to defend in the war, which you are already defending in Korea.

I know very well how often you repeat that you are criticizing Stalinism and fighting it. But the fact is that your criticism and your fight lose their value and can yield no results because they are determined by and subordinated to your position of defense of the Stalinist state. Whoever defends this regime of barbarous oppression, regardless of the motives, abandons the principles of socialism and internationalism.

In the message sent me from the recent convention of the SWP you write that Trotsky’s ideas continue to be your guide. I must tell you that I read these words with great bitterness. As you observe from what I have written above, I do not see his ideas in your politics. I have confidence in these ideas. I remain convinced that the only way out of the present situation is the social revolution, the self-emancipation of the proletariat of the world.[66]

Natalia Trotsky, like the Shachtmanites, regarded the USSR as having irredeemably destroyed Marxism, and that the only option left was to destroy the USSR, which meant aligning with the USA in the Cold War.

It was this bellicose anti-Stalinism that brought the Shachtmanites into the US foreign policy establishment during the Cold War, and beyond, to the present-day. Haberkern, an admirer of Shachtman’s early commitment to Trotskyism and opposition to Stalinism, lamented:

There is, unfortunately, a sad footnote to Shachtman’s career. Beginning in the 50s he began to move to the right in response to the discouraging climate of the Cold War. He ended up a Cold Warrior and apologist for the Meany wing of the AFL-CIO.[67] But that should not diminish the value of his earlier contributions.[68]

Cold War and Beyond

Professor Hook and Max Shachtman veered increasingly towards a pro-US position to the point that Hook, while maintaining his commitment to Social-Democracy, voted for Richard Nixon and publicly defended President Ronald Reagan’s policies.

During the 1960s, Hook critiqued the New Left and became an outspoken supporter of the Vietnam War. In 1984 he was selected by the National Endowment for the Humanities to give the annual Jefferson Lecture, ‘the highest honor the federal government confers for distinguished intellectual achievement in the humanities’. [69] On May 23 1985 Hook was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Reagan. Edward S Shapiro writing in the American ‘conservative’ journal First Principles, summarised Hook’s position:

One of America’s leading anticommunist intellectuals,[70] Hook supported American entry into the Korean War, the isolation of Red China, the efforts of the United States government to maintain a qualitative edge in nuclear weapons, the Johnson administration’s attempt to preserve a pro-western regime in South Vietnam, and the campaign of the Reagan administration to overthrow the communist regime in Nicaragua.

Those both within and outside of conservative circles viewed Hook as one of the gurus of the neoconservative revival during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1985, President Reagan presented Hook with the Presidential Medal of Freedom for being one of the first ‘to warn the intellectual world of its moral obligations and personal stake in the struggle between freedom and totalitarianism’.[71]

In the 1960s Shachtmanism aligned with the Democratic Party and was also involved with the New Left. By the mid 1960s such was the Shachtmanite opposition to the USSR that they had arrived on issues of American foreign policy that were the same as Hook’s, including supporting the American presence in Vietnam. In 1972 the Shachtmanists endorsed Leftist Senator Henry Jackson for the Democratic presidential nomination against Leftist George McGovern whom they regarded as an appeaser toward the USSR. Jackson was both pro-war and vehemently anti-Soviet, advocating a ‘hawkish’ position on foreign policy towards the USSR. Like Hook, Jackson was also awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Reagan in 1984.

At this time Tom Kahn, a prominent Shachtmanite and an organizer of the AFL-CIO, who will be considered below, was Senator Jackson’s chief speechwriter.[72] Many of Jackson’s aides were to become prominent in the oddly ‘neo-conservative’ movement, including veteran Trotskyites Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, and Douglas Feith, all of whom became prominent in the Administration of President George H W Bush, all of whom helped to instigate the present war against Islam, which they began to call ‘Islamofascism’, as a new means of extending American world supremacy.

Tom Kahn, who remained an avid follower of Shachtman, explained his mentor’s position on the USA in Vietnam in this way, while insisting that Shachtman never compromised his Socialist ideals:

His views on Vietnam were, and are, unpopular on the Left. He had no allusions about the South Vietnamese government, but neither was he confused about the totalitarian nature of the North Vietnamese regime. In the South there were manifest possibilities for a democratic development… He knew that those democratic possibilities would be crushed if Hanoi’s military takeover of the South succeeded. He considered the frustration of the attempt to be a worthy objective of American policy…[73]

This position in it own right can be readily justified by dialectics, as the basis for the support of Trotskyist factions, including those of both Hook and Shachtman during the Cold War, and the present legacy of the so-called ‘neo-cons’ in backing American foreign policy as the manifestation of a ‘global democratic revolution’, as a development of Trotsky’s ‘world proletarian revolution.’ 

National Endowment for Democracy

It was from this milieu that the National Endowment for Democracy (NED) was formed, which took up form the CIA’s Congress for Cultural Freedom.

President George W Bush embraced the world revolutionary mission of the USA, stating in 2003 to NED that the war in Iraq was the latest front in the ‘global democratic revolution’ led by the United States. ‘The revolution under former president Ronald Reagan freed the people of Soviet-dominated Europe, he declared, and is destined now to liberate the Middle East as well’. [74]

NED was established in 1983 at the prompting of Shachtmanist veteran Tom Kahn, and endorsed by an Act of US Congress introduced by Congressman George Agree. Carl Gershman, [75] a Shachtmanite, was appointed president of NED in 1984, and remains so. Gershman had been a founder and Executive Director (1974-1980) of Social Democrats USA (SD-USA).[76] Among the founding directors of NED was Albert Glotzer, a national committee member of the SD-USA, who had served as Trotsky’s bodyguard and secretary in Turkey in 1931,[77] who had assisted Shachtman with founding the Workers Party of the United States.

Congressman Agree and Tom Kahn believed that the USA needed a means, apart from the CIA, of supporting subversive movements against the USSR. Kahn, who became International Affairs Director of the AFL-CIO, was particularly spurred by the need to support the Solidarity movement in Poland, and had been involved with AFL-CIO meetings with Leftists from Latin America and South Africa. [78]

Kahn had joined the Young Socialist League, the youth wing of Shachtman’s Independent Socialist League, [79] and the Young People’s Socialist League, which he continued to support until his death in 1992. Kahn was impressed by the Shachtman opposition to the USSR as the primary obstacle to world socialism. [80] He built up an anti-Soviet network throughout the world in ‘opposition to the accommodationist policies of détente’.[81] There was a particular focus on assisting Solidarity in Poland from 1980.[82] Racehlle Horowitz’s eulogy to Kahn ends with her confidence that had he been alive, he would have been a vigorous supporter of the war in Iraq. [83]

NED is funded by US Congress and supports ‘activists and scholars’ with 1000 grants in over 90 countries.[84]  NED describes its program thus:

From time to time Congress has provided special appropriations to the Endowment to carry out specific democratic initiatives in countries of special interest, including Poland (through the trade union Solidarity), Chile, Nicaragua, Eastern Europe (to aid in the democratic transition following the demise of the Soviet bloc), South Africa, Burma, China, Tibet, North Korea and the Balkans. With the latter, NED supported a number of civic groups, including those that played a key role in Serbia’s electoral breakthrough in the fall of 2000. More recently, following 9/11 and the NED Board’s adoption of its third strategic document, special funding has been provided for countries with substantial Muslim populations in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.[85]

NED therefore serves as a kind of ‘Comintern’ of the so-called ‘American democratic revolution’ throughout the world. The subversion by the USA, culturally, politically, and economically, with its front-groups, spies, fellow-travellers, activists, and outright revolutionaries, is more far-reaching than the USSR’s allegedly ‘communist’ subversion ever was.

The accusation by the Stalinists at the Moscow Trials of the 1930s was that the Trotskyists were agents of foreign powers and would reintroduce capitalism. The crisis in Marxism caused by the Stalinist regime – the so-called ‘betrayal of the revolution’ as Trotsky himself termed it – resulted in such outrage among the Trotskyites that they were willing to whore themselves and undertake anything to bring down the Soviet edifice.

Notes

[1] American President Woodrow Wilson’s principal adviser and confidante.

[2] Henry Wickham Steed, Through Thirty Years 1892-1922 A personal narrative, ‘The Peace Conference, The Bullitt Mission’, Vol. II.  (New York: Doubleday Page and Co., 1924), 301.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Samuel Gompers, ‘Soviet Bribe Fund Here Says Gompers, Has Proof That Offers Have Been Made, He Declares, Opposing Recognition. Propaganda Drive. Charges Strong Group of Bankers With Readiness to Accept Lenin’s Betrayal of Russia’, The New York Times, 1 May 1922.

[6] Richard B Spence, ‘Hidden Agendas: Spies, Lies and Intrigue Surrounding Trotsky’s American Visit, January-April 1917’, Revolutionary Russia, Volume 21, Issue 1 June 2008, 33 – 55.

[7] Ibid.

[8] It is more accurate to state that Trotsky managed to straddle both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks until the impending success of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Military Intelligence Division, 9140-6073, Memorandum # 2, 23 August 1918, 2. Cited by Spence, op.cit.

[12] Spence, ibid.

[13] Wiseman became a partner in 1929.

[14] ‘Sir William’s New Bank’, Time, October 17 1955.

[15] The foregoing on Trotsky’s associations from Spain to New York and his transit back to Russia are indebted to Spence, op.cit.

[16] Edward M. House, ed. Charles Seymour, The Intimate Papers of Col. House (New York: Houghton, Mifflin Co.), Vol. III, 421.

[17] Peter Grosse, Continuing The Inquiry: The Council on Foreign Relations from 1921 to 1996, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2006), ‘Basic Assumptions’. The entire book can be read online at: http://www.cfr.org/about/history/cfr/index.html ^[3]

[18] Armand Hammer, Witness to History (London: Coronet Books, 1988), 221.

[19] Ibid., 160.

[20] Ibid., 221.

[21] David North, ‘Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Socialism in the 20^th Century’, opening lecture to the International Summer School on ‘Marxism and the Fundamental Problems of the 20th Century’, organised by the International Committee of the Fourth International and the Socialist Equality Party of Australia, Sydney, Australia, January 3 1998. David North is the national secretary of the Socialist Equality Party in the USA, and has lectured extensively in Europe, Asia, the US and Russia on Marxism and the program of the Fourth International. http://www.wsws.org/exhibits/trotsky/trlect.htm ^[4] (accessed 12 March 2010).

[22] Albert E Kahn and Michael Sayers, The Great Conspiracy Against Russia, (London: Collet’s Holdings Ltd., 1946).

[23] Antony Sutton, op.cit., 39-42.

[24] Kahn and Sayers, op.cit. p. 29.

[25] ‘Calls People War Weary, But Leo Trotsky Says They Do Tot Want Separate Peace’, The New York Times, 16 March 1917.

[26] The real purpose of the American Red Cross Mission in Russia was to examine how commercial relations could be established with the fledgling Bolshevik regime, as indicated by the fact that there were more business representatives in the Mission than there were medical personnel. See: Dr Anton Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Arlington House Publishers, 1974), 71-88. K R Bolton, Revolution from Above (London: Arktos Media Ltd., 2011) 63-64.

[27] ‘Gives Bolsheviki a Million’, Washington Post, 2 February 1918, cited by Sutton, op.cit., ., pp. 82-83.

[28] The New York Times, 27 January 1918, op.cit.

[29] Kahn and Sayers, op.cit., p. 29.

[30] R H Bruce Lockhart, British Agent (London: G P Putnam’s Sons, 1933), Book Four, ‘History From the Inside’, Chapter I.

[31] Antony Sutton, op.cit., 84, 86.

[32] R H Bruce Lockhart, op.cit.

[33] Ibid., Chapter III.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Ibid. Lockhart observed that while the German peace terms received 112 votes from the Central Executive Committee of the Bolshevik Party, there had been 86 against, and 25 abstentions, among the latter of whom was Trotsky.

[36] Ibid., Chapter IV.

[37] That at least was the perception of Stalinists of Trotsky’s depiction by the West, as portrayed by Kahn and Sayers, op.cit., 194.

[38] Kahn and Sayers cite a number of Lenin’s statements regarding Trotsky, dating from 1911, when Lenin stated that Trotsky slides from one faction to another and back again, but ultimately ‘I must declare that Trotsky represents his own faction only…’ Ibid., 195.

[39] Ibid., 199.

[40] Leon Trotsky, Leon Sedov: Son-Friend-Fighter, 1938, cited by Kahn and Sayers, 205.

[41] Ibid., 204.

[42] R H Bruce Lockhart, op.cit., Book Three: War & Peace, Chapter IX. Lockhart described Savinkov as a professional ‘schemer’, who ‘had mingled so much with spies and agents-provocateurs that, like the hero in his own novel, he hardly knew whether he was deceiving himself or those whom he meant to deceive’. Lockhart commented that Savinkov had ‘entirely captivated Mr Churchill, who saw in him a Russian Bonaparte’.

[43] Reilly, the British ‘super agent’ although widely known for his anti-Bolshevik views, prior to his becoming a ‘super spy’ and possibly working for the intelligence agencies of four states, by his own account had been arrested in 1892 in Russia by the Czarist secret police as a messenger for the revolutionary Friends of Enlightenment.

[44] Kahn and Sayers, op.cit., 208.

[45] Commissariat of Justice, Report of the Case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites’, Heard Before The Military Collegium of the Court of the USSR, Moscow, March 24 1938, 307.

[46] Ibid., 288.

[47]  Ibid. 293.

[48] Ibid.

[49] Ibid.

[50] Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, ‘Eschatology and the Appeal of Revolution’, California Slavic Studies, Volume. II, University of California Press, California, 1930, 116.

[51] Ibid.

[52] Shachtman was one of the two most prominent Trotskyites in the USA according to Trotskyist historian Ernest Haberkern, Introduction to Max Shachtman, http://www.marxists.org/archive/shachtma/intro.htm ^[5]

[53] ‘British Trotskyism in 1931’, Encyclopaedia of Trotskyism Online: Revolutionary History, http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/revhist/backiss/vol1/no1/glotzer.html ^[6]

[54] Max Shachtman, Behind the Moscow Trial (New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1936).

[55] Max Shachtman, ‘Trotsky Begins the Fight’, The Struggle for the New Course (New York: New International Publishing Co., 1943).

[56] Ibid.

[57] Ibid.

[58] Leon Trotsky, In Defence of the Soviet Union, Max Shachtman, ‘Introduction.’ (New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1937).

[59] James P Cannon, a veteran Trotskyist and former colleague of Shachtman’s.

[60] Max Shachtman, ‘The Crisis in the American Party: An Open Letter in Reply to Comrade Leon Trotsky’, New International, Vol.6 No.2, March 1940), 43-51.

[61] Ibid.

[62] Max Shachtman, ‘The Nature of the Stalinist Parties: Their Class Roots, Political Role and Basic Aim’, The New International: A Monthly Organ of Revolutionary Marxism, Vol.13 No.3, March 1947, 69-74.

[63]Max Shachtman, ‘Stalinism on the Decline: Tito versus Stalin The Beginning of the End of the Russian Empire’, New International, Vol. XIV No.6, August 1948, 172-178.

[64] Max Shachtman, ‘The Congress of the Fourth International: An Analysis of the Bankruptcy of “Orthodox Trotskyism”’, New International, Vol.XIV, No.8, October 1948, pp.236-245.

[65] Max Shachtman, ‘Reflections on a Decade Past: On the Tenth Anniversary of Our Movement’, The New International: A Monthly Organ of Revolutionary Marxism, Vol.16 No.3, May-June 1950, pp.131-144.

[66] Natalia Sedova Trotsky, May 9, 1951, Labor Action, June 17, 1951, http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/socialistvoice/natalia38.html ^[7]

[67] American Federation of Labor-Central Industrial Organization.

[68] Haberkern, op.cit.

[69] Sidney Hook, ‘Education in Defense of a Free Society’, 1984, Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities, National Endowment for Humanities, http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/jefflect.html ^[8]

[70] Again, there is obfuscation with the use of the term ‘anti-Communist’. What is meant in such cases is not opposition to Communism, but opposition to Stalinism, and the course the USSR had set upon after the elimination of the Trotskyites, et al. Many of these so-called ‘anti-Communists’ in opposing the USSR considered themselves loyal to the legacy of Trotsky.

[71] Edward S Shapiro, ‘Hook, Sidney’, First Principles: The Home of American Intellectual Conservatism, July 3,  2009, http://www.firstprinciplesjournal.com/articles.aspx?article=699&loc=r ^[9]

[72] Tom Kahn, ‘Max Shachtman: His Ideas and His Movement’, Editor’s Note on Kahn, Dissent Magazine, 252 http://www.dissentmagazine.org/democratiya/article_pdfs/d11Khan.pdf ^[10]

[73] Tom Kahn, Democratiya 11, 2007, reprinted in Dissent Magazine, ibid., 258.

[74] Fred Barbash, ‘Bush: Iraq Part of ‘Global Democratic Revolution’: Liberation of Middle East Portrayed as Continuation of Reagan’s Policies’, Washington Post, 6 November 6, 2003.

[75] Gershman served as Senior Counsellor to the United States Representative to the United Nations beginning in 1981. As it happens, the Representative he was advising was fellow Social Democrats comrade, Jeane Kirkpatrick, who had begun her political career in the (Trotskyist) Young People’s Socialist League, a branch of the Shachtmanist-orientated Socialist Party, as had many other ‘neo-cons.’

[76] The Social Democrats USA had originated in 1972 after a split with the Trotskyist-orientated Socialist Party. The honorary chairman of the Social Democrats USA until his death in 1984 was Prof. Sidney Hook.

[77] Glotzer was a leading Trotskyist. Expelled from the Communist Party USA in 1928 along with Max Shachtman, they founded the Communist League and the subsequent factions. When the Socialist Party factionalised in 1972 Glotzer joined the Social Democrats – USA faction, which remained closest to Shachtmanism, and which supported US foreign policy. Even in 1981 Glotzer was still involved with luminaries of the Socialist Workers Party. “British Trotskyism in 1931”, Encyclopaedia of Trotskyism Online: Revolutionary History, http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/revhist/backiss/vol1/no1/glotzer.html (Accessed 7 March 2010).

[78] Rachelle Horowitz, “Tom Kahn and the Fight for Democracy: A Political Portrait and Personal Recollection”, Dissent Magazine, pp. 238-239. http://www.dissentmagazine.org/democratiya/article_pdfs/d11Horowitz.pdf (Accessed 8 March 2010).

[79] Ibid., p. 209.

[80] Ibid. p 211.

[81] Ibid., p. 234.

[82] Ibid., p. 235.

[83] Ibid., p. 246.

[84] ‘About NED’, National Endowment for Democracy, http://www.ned.org/about (accessed 7 March 2010).

[85] David Lowe, ‘Idea to Reality: NED at 25: Reauthorization’, NED, http://www.ned.org/about/history (accessed 7 March 2010).

 

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[5] http://www.marxists.org/archive/shachtma/intro.htm: http://www.marxists.org/archive/shachtma/intro.htm

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Le plan de Staline pour conquérir l'Europe

Le plan de Staline pour conquérir l’Europe:
Comment l’Union Soviétique «perdit» la 2ème Guerre Mondiale

Daniel W. Michaels

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com/

Viktor Suvorov (Vladimir Rezun)
Poslednyaya Respublika («La dernière république»)
Moscou : TKO ACT, 1996.

English original here ^[2]

Il y a maintenant plusieurs années de cela, un ancien officier du renseignement militaire soviétique nommé Vladimir Rezun provoqua de vives discussions en Russie à cause de son affirmation sensationnelle, selon laquelle Hitler a attaqué la Russie soviétique en juin 1941, au moment exact où Staline se préparait à submerger l’Allemagne et l’Europe de l’Ouest, en prélude à une opération bien préparée, visant à «libérer» toute l’Europe en la mettant sous domination communiste.

Ecrivant sous le nom de plume de Viktor Suvorov, Rezun a développé cette thèse dans trois livres. Le Brise-glace (qui a été traduit en anglais et en français [1989] ) et Dni M («M-Day») ont été présentés dans le Journal of Historical Review, nov-déc. 1997. Le troisième livre, présenté ici, est un ouvrage de 470 pages, «La dernière république : pourquoi l’Union Soviétique perdit la Seconde Guerre Mondiale», publié à Moscou en 1996.

Suvorov présente une abondance de preuves, montrant que quand Hitler déclencha son «Opération Barbarossa» contre la Russie Soviétique le 22 juin 1941, les forces allemandes purent infliger d’énormes pertes aux Soviétiques précisément parce que les troupes russes étaient très bien préparées pour la guerre — mais pour une guerre d’agression qui fut programmée pour le début de juillet — et pas pour la guerre défensive qui leur fut imposée par l’attaque préventive de Hitler.

Dans le Brise-glace, Suvorov détaille le déploiement des forces soviétiques en juin 1941, décrivant exactement de quelle manière Staline amassa de vastes quantités de troupes et de stocks d’armements le long de la frontière européenne, pas pour défendre la patrie soviétique, mais en préparation d’une attaque vers l’ouest et de batailles décisives en territoire ennemi.

Ainsi, quand les forces allemandes frappèrent, le gros des forces russes, terrestres et aériennes, étaient concentrées le long des frontières ouest de l’URSS, en face des pays européens contigus, particulièrement le Reich allemand et la Roumanie, prêtes pour l’assaut final contre l’Europe.

Dans son second livre sur les origines de la guerre, M-Day («Jour de mobilisation»), Suvorov décrit comment, entre la fin de 1939 et l’été de 1941, Staline construisit méthodiquement et systématiquement la force militaire la mieux armée, la plus puissante dans le monde — véritablement la première superpuissance du monde — pour sa future conquête de l’Europe. Suvorov explique comment la conversion drastique de l’économie du pays pour la guerre, voulue par Staline, rendait la guerre réellement inévitable.

Une Union Soviétique Mondiale

Dans La dernière république, Suvorov ajoute d’autres preuves à celles présentées dans ses deux livres précédents, pour appuyer son affirmation selon laquelle Staline se préparait à une guerre d’agression, en soulignant les motivations idéologiques des actions du dirigeant soviétique. Le titre fait allusion au malheureux pays qui devait être incorporé en tant que «République finale» dans «l’Union des Républiques Socialistes Soviétiques» mondiale, complétant ainsi le révolution prolétarienne mondiale.

Comme l’explique Suvorov, ce plan était entièrement en accord avec la doctrine marxiste-léniniste, ainsi qu’avec la politique de Lénine dans les premières années du régime soviétique. L’historien russe argue de manière convaincante que ce ne fut pas Léon Trotsky (Bronstein), mais plutôt Staline, son moins flamboyant rival, qui fut réellement le fidèle disciple de Lénine pour la poursuite de la Révolution Communiste Mondiale. Trotsky insistait sur la doctrine de la «révolution permanente», par laquelle le jeune Etat soviétique aiderait à fomenter des soulèvements et des révolutions ouvrières à l’intérieur des pays capitalistes.

A la place de cela, Staline voulait que le régime soviétique tire avantage «d’armistices» occasionnels dans la lutte mondiale pour consolider la force militaire soviétique, afin qu’au bon moment des forces soviétiques plus importantes et mieux armées puissent frapper en Europe du Centre et de l’Ouest, ajoutant de nouvelles républiques soviétiques quand cette force écrasante se mettrait en marche à travers le continent. Après la consolidation réussie et la soviétisation de toute l’Europe, l’URSS renforcée serait prête à imposer le pouvoir soviétique à tout le globe.

Comme le montre Suvorov, Staline comprit très bien que s’ils avaient le choix, les peuples des pays avancés de l’Occident ne choisiraient jamais volontairement le communisme. Il serait donc nécessaire de l’imposer par la force. Staline décida alors que son plan audacieux ne pouvait être réalisé que par une guerre mondiale.

Une preuve d’importance décisive à cet égard est le discours de Staline du 19 août 1939, récemment retrouvé dans les archives soviétiques (cité en partie dans Journal of Historical Review de nov-déc. 1997, p. 32-33). Dans ce discours, l’héritier de Lénine déclare:

L’expérience des vingt dernières années a montré qu’en temps de paix le mouvement communiste n’est jamais suffisamment fort pour prendre le pouvoir. La dictature d’un tel parti deviendra possible seulement en résultat d’une guerre majeure

Plus tard, tous les pays qui avaient accepté la protection de l’Allemagne renaissante deviendront aussi nos alliés. Nous aurons un large champ d’action pour développer la révolution mondiale.

De plus, et comme les théoriciens soviétiques l’ont toujours affirmé, le communisme ne pourrait jamais coexister pacifiquement sur le long terme avec d’autres systèmes socio-politiques. En conséquence, la domination communiste devrait inévitablement être imposée au monde. Ce but de «révolution mondiale» était tellement consubstantiel à la nature et au développement du «premier Etat des travailleurs» qu’il fut un trait cardinal du programme soviétique, même avant que Hitler et son mouvement national-socialiste arrive au pouvoir en Allemagne en 1933.

Staline voulait frapper au moment et à l’endroit de son choix. A cette fin, le développement soviétique des systèmes d’armes offensives les plus avancées, principalement les blindés, les avions, et les forces aéroportées, avait déjà commencé au début des années 30. Pour assurer le succès de son audacieuse entreprise, Staline ordonna à la fin de 1939 de construire une puissante machine de guerre qui serait supérieure en quantité et en qualité à toutes les forces d’opposition possibles. Son premier ordre secret pour la mobilisation militaro-industrielle totale du pays fut émis en août 1939. Un second ordre de mobilisation totale, cette fois-ci pour la mobilisation militaire, devait être émis le jour où la guerre commencerait.

Déception

L’attaque allemande «Barbarossa» anéantit le plan bien établi de Staline pour «libérer» toute l’Europe. Dans ce sens, affirme Suvorov, Staline «perdit» la 2ème Guerre Mondiale. Le dirigeant soviétique ne pouvait considérer que comme une déception d’avoir «seulement» vaincu l’Allemagne et conquis l’Europe de l’Est et du Centre.

14 jours qui sauvèrent l’Occident

«Nombre d’indices tendent à prouver que la date fixée par Staline pour l’opération «Orage» était le 6 juillet 1941.» (Viktor Suvorov, Le Brise-glace)

«Le commandement fasciste allemand réussit, deux semaines avant la guerre, à devancer nos troupes.» (Général S.P. Ivanov)

«Hitler ne savait pas tout, mais il en savait assez: s’il n’attaquait pas, l’autre attaquerait. (…) Hitler reniflait ce danger. (…) C’était une question de vie ou de mort.» (Léon Degrelle, Persiste et signe)

«Ma conviction profonde est que si le Führer ne nous avait pas donné l’ordre d’attaquer à ce moment-là, les Etats européens et la plupart des sociétés humaines seraient à présent bolchevisés.» (Otto Skorzeny, La guerre inconnue)

«… la puissance russe menaçante, ayant ses têtes de pont préparées sur la Baltique et sur la mer Noire, n’attendait qu’une occasion, c’est-à-dire le moment où l’armée allemande serait suffisament occupée par les puissances occidentales, pour que le front oriental soit ouvert à une attaque massive à laquelle l’Allemagne ne serait pas en mesure de résister.» (Sven Hedin, L’Amérique dans la lutte des continents)

«Staline préparait la guerre dans tous les domaines, en partant de délais qu’il avait fixé lui-même. Hitler déjoua ses calculs.» (Amiral N. G. Kouznetsov)

Selon Suvorov, Staline trahit sa déception de plusieurs manières après la fin de la guerre. D’abord, il laissa le maréchal Joukov conduire le défilé de la victoire en 1945, au lieu de le faire lui-même — lui, le Commandant suprême. Deuxièmement, aucun défilé officiel de la victoire du 9 mai ne fut même autorisé jusqu’à la mort de Staline en 1953. Troisièmement, Staline ne porta jamais aucune des médailles qu’il avait obtenues après la fin de la 2ème Guerre Mondiale. Quatrièmement, un jour, dans un moment de dépression, il exprima aux membres de son entourage proche son désir de se retirer [du pouvoir] maintenant que la guerre était finie. Cinquièmement, et c’est peut-être le plus révélateur, Staline abandonna le projet, prévu de longue date, du Palais des Soviets.

Un monument inachevé

L’énorme Palais des Soviets, approuvé par le gouvernement soviétique au début des années 30, devait faire 418 mètres de haut, surmonté par une statue de Lénine de 100 mètres de hauteur — plus haut que l’Empire State Building de New York. Il devait être construit sur le site de l’ancienne Cathédrale du Christ Sauveur. Sur l’ordre de Staline, ce magnifique symbole de la vieille Russie fut rasé en 1931 — un acte par lequel les dirigeants communistes voulaient effacer symboliquement l’âme de la vieille Russie pour faire place au monument central de l’URSS mondiale.

Toutes les «républiques socialistes» du monde, y compris la «dernière république», devaient être représentées dans le Palais. Le hall principal de ce sanctuaire séculier devait être décoré avec le texte du serment que Staline avait fait en termes quasi-religieux lors des funérailles de Lénine. Il comportait ces paroles : «Lorsqu’il nous quitta, le Camarade Lénine nous légua la responsabilité de renforcer et de développer l’Union des Républiques Socialistes. Nous te jurons, Camarade Lénine, que nous nous acquitterons honorablement de tes commandements sacrés.»

Cependant, seules les premières fondations de ce grandiose monument furent achevées, et pendant les années 90, après l’effondrement de l’URSS, la Cathédrale du Christ Sauveur fut soigneusement reconstruite sur le site.

La version officielle

Pendant des décennies, la version officielle du conflit germano-soviétique de 1941-45, soutenue par les historiens de l’establishment, à la fois en Russie et en Occident, fut à peu près cela:

Hitler déclencha une attaque «éclair» par surprise contre l’Union Soviétique tristement mal-préparée, ridiculisant son chef, le naïf et confiant Staline. Le Führer allemand fut conduit vers l’Orient primitif par la convoitise pour «l’espace vital» et les ressources naturelles, et par sa détermination longuement remâchée de détruire le «communisme juif» une fois pour toutes. Dans son attaque traîtresse, qui était une étape importante de la folle campagne de Hitler pour la «conquête du monde», les agresseurs «nazis» ou «fascistes» submergèrent d’abord toute résistance grâce à leur prépondérance en chars et en avions modernes.

Cette vison des choses, qui fut affirmée par les juges Alliés au Tribunal de Nuremberg après la guerre, est encore largement acceptée, à la fois en Russie et aux Etats-Unis. En Russie aujourd’hui, la plus grande partie du public (et pas seulement ceux qui sont nostalgiques de l’ancien régime soviétique) accepte cette version «politiquement correcte». En effet, elle «explique» les énormes pertes de l’Union Soviétique en hommes et en matériel pendant la 2ème Guerre Mondiale.

Condamné depuis le début

Contrairement à la version officielle selon laquelle l’Union Soviétique n’était pas préparée pour la guerre en juin 1941, en réalité, souligne Suvorov, c’était les Allemands qui n’étaient pas vraiment préparés. Le plan allemand «Barbarossa», hâtivement mis au point, qui visait à une victoire éclair en cinq ou six mois avec des forces numériquement inférieures, avançant en trois larges poussées, était condamné depuis le début.

De plus, note Suvorov, l’Allemagne manquait des matières premières (incluant le pétrole) essentielles pour soutenir une guerre prolongée d’une telle dimension.

Une autre raison du manque de préparation de l’Allemagne, affirme Suvorov, était que ses chefs militaires avaient sérieusement sous-estimé la performance des forces soviétiques pendant la «Guerre d’Hiver» contre la Finlande en 1939-40. Elles combattirent, il faut le souligner, dans des conditions extrêmement sévères d’hiver — températures de -40 et des épaisseurs de neige de plus d’un mètre — contre les fortifications et les installations enterrées, bien conçues et renforcées de la «Ligne Mannerheim» de la Finlande. En dépit de cela, on l’oublie souvent, l’Armée Rouge contraignit finalement les Finlandais à un humiliant armistice.

C’est toujours une erreur, souligne Suvorov, de sous-estimer son ennemi. Mais Hitler fit cette faute de calcul décisive. En 1943, après que le cours de la guerre ait tourné contre l’Allemagne, il reconnut son jugement erroné des forces soviétiques, deux années plus tôt.

Disparité des chars

Pour prouver que c’était Staline, et pas Hitler, qui était réellement préparé pour la guerre, Suvorov compare l’armement allemand et soviétique au milieu de 1941, avec une attention particulière pour les systèmes d’armes offensifs, d’importance décisive: les chars et les forces aéroportées. C’est un axiome généralement accepté en science militaire, que les forces attaquantes doivent avoir une supériorité numérique de trois contre un. Cependant, comme l’explique Suvorov, quand les Allemands frappèrent au matin du 22 juin 1941, ils attaquèrent avec un total de 3 350 chars, alors que les défenseurs soviétiques avaient un total de 24 000 chars — ce qui veut dire que Staline avait sept fois plus de chars que Hitler, ou vingt et une fois plus de chars que ce qui aurait été considéré comme suffisant pour une défense adéquate. De plus, souligne Suvorov, les chars soviétiques étaient supérieurs dans tous les aspects techniques, incluant la puissance de feu, l’autonomie et le blindage.

Tel qu’il était, le développement soviétique de la production de chars lourds avait déjà commencé au début des années 30. Par exemple, dès 1933 les Soviétiques étaient déjà passés à la production en série, et livraient à leurs forces le modèle T-35, un char lourd de 45 tonnes avec 3 canons, 6 mitrailleuses, et 30mm de blindage. Par contre, les Allemands commencèrent le développement et la production d’un char de 45 tonnes comparable [ce furent le «Tiger» et le «Panther», NDT] seulement après que la guerre ait commencé à la mi-1941.

En 1939 les Soviétiques avaient déjà ajouté trois modèles de chars lourds à leur arsenal. De plus, les Soviétiques concevaient leurs chars avec de plus larges chenilles, et les équipaient avec des moteurs Diesel (qui étaient moins inflammables que ceux utilisant des carburateurs conventionnels). En outre, les chars soviétiques étaient construits avec le moteur et la direction à l’arrière, améliorant ainsi l’efficacité générale et la vision de l’équipage. Les chars allemands avaient une conception moins efficace, avec le moteur à l’arrière et la direction dans la partie avant.

Quand le conflit commença en juin 1941, montre Suvorov, l’Allemagne n’avait pas du tout de chars lourds, seulement 309 chars moyens, et juste 2 668 chars légers, inférieurs. Pour leur part, les Soviétiques au début de la guerre avaient à leur disposition des chars qui n’étaient pas seulement plus lourds mais de meilleure qualité.

A ce sujet, Suvorov cite les souvenirs du général allemand des blindés Heinz Guderian, qui écrivit dans ses mémoires Chef de Panzers (1952/1996, p. 143) :

Au printemps de 1941, Hitler avait spécialement ordonné qu’une commission militaire russe puisse visiter nos usines et nos écoles de blindés; dans cet ordre il avait insisté pour que rien ne leur soit caché. Les officiers russes en question refusèrent toujours de croire que le Panzer IV était en fait notre char le plus lourd. Ils dirent toujours que nous devions leur cacher nos nouveaux modèles, et se plaignirent en disant que nous n’appliquions pas l’ordre d’Hitler de tout leur montrer. La commission militaire insista tellement sur ce point que finalement nos responsables des services concernés conclurent: «Il semble que les Russes possèdent déjà des chars meilleurs et plus lourds que les nôtres». Ce fut à la fin de juillet 1941 que le T-34 apparut sur le front et l’énigme du nouveau modèle de char russe fut résolue.

Suvorov cite un autre fait révélateur extrait de l’Almanach de la 2ème Guerre Mondiale de Robert Goralski (1982, p. 164). Le 24 juin 1941, juste deux jours après le début de la guerre germano-soviétique:

Les Russes mirent en action leurs chars géants Klim Vorochilov près de Raseiniai [Lithanie]. Des modèles pesant 43 et 52 tonnes surprirent les Allemands, qui trouvèrent les KV presque inarrêtables. L’un de ces chars russes reçut 70 coups directs, mais aucun ne perça son blindage.

Bref, l’Allemagne attaqua le colosse soviétique avec des chars qui étaient trop légers, trop peu nombreux, et inférieurs en performances et en puissance de feu. Et cette disparité perdura pendant toute la guerre. Pendant le seule année 1942, les usines soviétiques produisirent 2 553 chars lourds, pendant que les Allemands en produisaient juste 89. Même à la fin de la guerre, le meilleur char au combat était le modèle soviétique IS («Iosif Staline»).

Suvorov encourage sarcastiquement les historiens militaires de l’establishment à étudier un livre sur les chars soviétiques, par Igor P. Schmelev, publié en 1993 par la «Hobby Book Publishing Company» à Moscou. Le travail d’un honnête analyste militaire amateur tel que Schmelev, qui est sincèrement intéressé et qui aime son travail et la vérité, dit Suvorov, est souvent supérieur à celui d’un employé payé par le gouvernement.

Disparité des Forces Aériennes

La supériorité soviétique en forces aéroportées était encore plus disproportionnée. Avant la guerre, les bombardiers soviétiques DB-3f et SB ainsi que les TB-1 et TB-3 (dont Staline possédait environ un millier) avaient été modifiés pour transporter aussi bien des parachutistes que des bombes. Vers la mi-1941, les Soviétiques avaient entraîné des centaines de milliers de parachutistes (Suvorov dit presque un million) en vue de l’attaque planifiée contre l’Allemagne et l’Occident. Ces troupes aéroportées devaient être déployées et lâchées derrière les lignes ennemies en plusieurs vagues, chaque vague étant formée de cinq corps d’armée aéroportés (VDKs), chaque corps comptant 10 419 hommes incluant un état-major et des services, une division d’artillerie, et un bataillon de chars autonome (50 chars). Suvorov donne la liste des commandants et des bases des deux premières vagues, ou dix corps. Les secondes et troisièmes vagues comportaient des troupes parlant français et espagnol.

Comme l’attaque allemande empêcha ces troupes hautement entraînées d’être utilisées comme prévu, Staline les convertit en «Divisions de la Garde», qu’il utilisa comme des réserves et des «pompiers» pour les situations d’urgence, tout comme Hitler utilisa souvent les unités de Waffen SS.

Cartes et manuels

Pour appuyer sa thèse principale, Suvorov cite des données supplémentaires qui n’étaient pas mentionnées dans ses deux premiers ouvrages sur ce sujet. Premièrement, à la veille du début de la guerre de 1941, les forces soviétiques avaient reçu des cartes topographiques seulement pour les zones de la frontière et pour l’Europe; elles ne reçurent pas de cartes du territoire ou des villes soviétiques, parce que la guerre ne devait pas être menée sur le territoire national. Le Chef du Service Topographique militaire de l’époque, et donc responsable de la distribution des cartes militaires, le major-général Kudryatsev, ne fut pas sanctionné ni même limogé pour avoir manqué à fournir des cartes du territoire national, mais continua à mener une longue et brillante carrière militaire. De même, le Chef d’Etat-major, le général Joukov, ne fut jamais tenu pour responsable de la débâcle des premiers mois de la guerre. Aucun des principaux commandants militaires ne pouvait être tenu pour responsable, souligne Suvorov, parce qu’ils avaient tous suivi à la lettre les ordres de Staline.

Deuxièmement, au début de juin 1941, les forces soviétiques reçurent des milliers d’exemplaires d’un manuel russo-allemand, avec des sections consacrées à des opérations militaires offensives, telles que s’emparer de gares de chemin de fer, orienter des parachutistes, et ainsi de suite, et des expressions [en langues étrangères] utiles comme «arrêtez de transmettre ou je tire». Ce manuel fut imprimé en grand nombre par les imprimeries militaires de Léningrad et de Moscou. Cependant, ils n’atteignirent jamais les troupes sur les lignes de front, et on dit qu’elles furent détruites pendant la phase du début de la guerre.

L’aide des Etats-Unis «neutres»

Comme le note Suvorov, les Etats-Unis avaient fourni du matériel militaire depuis les années 30. Il cite l’étude de A.C. Sutton, National Suicide (Arlington House, 1973), qui relate qu’en 1938 le président Roosevelt conclut un accord secret avec l’URSS pour échanger des informations militaires. Pour le public américain, cependant, Roosevelt annonça la mise en place d’un «embargo moral» contre la Russie soviétique.

Pendant les mois précédent l’entrée en guerre formelle de l’Amérique dans la guerre (décembre 1941), les navires de guerre des Etats-Unis, officiellement neutres, étaient déjà en guerre dans l’Atlantique contre les forces navales allemandes (Voir La Flotte de Mr Roosevelt: la guerre privée de la Flotte US de l’Atlantique, 1939-42 par Patrick Abbazia [Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1975] ). Et deux jours après le déclenchement de «Barbarossa», Roosevelt annonça une aide des Etats-Unis à la Russie Soviétique dans sa guerre de survie contre l’Axe. Ainsi, au début de l’opération «Barbarossa», Hitler écrivit une lettre à Mussolini: «En ce moment cela ne fait aucune différence si l’Amérique entre officiellement en guerre ou pas, elle soutient déjà nos ennemis à fond, avec des livraisons massives de matériel de guerre.»

De même, W. Churchill faisait tout ce qui était en son pouvoir pendant les mois précédent juin 1941 — alors que les forces britanniques subissaient défaite sur défaite — pour faire entrer à la fois les Etats-Unis et l’URSS dans la guerre du côté britannique. En vérité, la coalition anti-Hitler des «Trois Grands» (Staline, Roosevelt, Churchill) était effectivement en place avant que l’Allemagne attaque la Russie, et fut une raison majeure pour que Hitler se sentit obligé de frapper la Russie soviétique, et de déclarer la guerre aux Etats-Unis cinq mois plus tard. (Voir le discours d’Hitler du 11 décembre 1941, publié dans le Journal of Historical Review, hiver 1988-89, p. 394-396, 402-412)

Les raisons de l’appui de F. Roosevelt à Staline sont difficiles à établir. Le président Roosevelt lui-même expliqua un jour à William Bullitt, son premier ambassadeur en Russie soviétique: «Je pense que si je lui donne [à Staline] tout ce que je peux, et que je ne demande rien en retour, noblesse oblige, il ne tentera pas d’annexer quoi que ce soit, et travaillera avec moi pour un monde de paix et de démocratie.» (Cité dans Robert Nisbet, Roosevelt et Staline: l’idylle manquée, 1989, p. 6). Peut-être l’explication la plus exacte (et la plus gentille) de l’attitude de Roosevelt est-elle une ignorance profonde, une auto-intoxication ou de la naïveté. Selon l’opinion digne de considération de George Kennan, historien et ancien diplomate américain de haut rang, en politique étrangère Roosevelt était «un homme superficiel, ignorant, dilettante, avec un horizon intellectuel sévèrement limité.»

Un pari désespéré

Suvorov admet être fasciné par Staline, l’appelant «un animal, un monstre sauvage et sanglant, mais un génie de tous les temps et de tous les peuples». Il dirigea la plus grande puissance militaire de la 2ème Guerre Mondiale, la force qui, plus que toute autre, vainquit l’Allemagne. En particulier, dans les années finales du conflit, il domina l’alliance militaire des Alliés. Il dut considérer Roosevelt et Churchill avec mépris, comme des «idiots utiles».

Au début de 1941, chacun admettait que comme l’Allemagne était déjà engagée contre la Grande-Bretagne en Afrique du Nord, en Méditerranée, et dans l’Atlantique, Hitler ne pourrait jamais se permettre l’ouverture d’un second front à l’Est (se rappelant la désastreuse expérience de la 1ère Guerre Mondiale, il avait mis en garde dans Mein Kampf contre le danger mortel d’une guerre sur deux fronts). C’est précisément parce qu’il était sûr que Staline pensait que Hitler n’ouvrirait pas un second front, soutient Suvorov, que le dirigeant allemand se sentit libre de déclencher «Barbarossa». Cette attaque, insiste Suvorov, fut un pari énorme et désespéré. Mais menacé par des forces soviétiques supérieures, prêtes à submerger l’Allemagne et l’Europe, Hitler n’avait guère d’autre choix que de déclencher cette attaque préventive. [Toutes proportions gardées, on peut faire une intéressante comparaison avec l'attaque israélienne de la Guerre des Six Jours en 1967. Dans ce dernier cas, le caractère préventif de l'attaque est admis sans difficulté par les historiens «officiels», alors que dans le cas de «Barbarossa», il est «politiquement incorrect» de le reconnaître, malgré l'évidence de l'immense menace soviétique, imminente ou pas, NDT.]

Reichstag, 1945

Mais c’était trop peu, trop tard. En dépit de l’avantage de frapper le premier, ce furent les Soviétiques qui finalement l’emportèrent. Au printemps de 1945, les troupes de l’Armée Rouge réussirent à hisser le drapeau rouge sur le bâtiment du Reichstag à Berlin. C’est seulement grâce aux sacrifices des forces allemandes et des forces de l’Axe que les troupes soviétiques ne parvinrent pas à hisser le drapeau rouge sur Paris, Amsterdam, Copenhague, Rome, Stockholm, et peut-être, Londres.

Le débat devient plus âpre

En dépit de la résistance des historiens de «l’establishment» (qui en Russie sont souvent d’anciens communistes), l’appui à la thèse de «l’attaque préventive» de Suvorov est allé croissant, à la fois en Russie et en Europe de l’Ouest. Parmi ceux qui sympathisent avec les vues de Suvorov figurent de jeunes historiens russes comme Yuri L. Dyakov, Tatiana S. Bushuyeva, et I. Pavlova (voir le JHR, nov-déc. 1997, p. 32-34).

Concernant l’histoire du 20ème siècle, les historiens américains ont généralement l’esprit plus fermé que leurs collègues d’Europe et de Russie. Mais même aux Etats-Unis, il y a eu quelques voix pour appuyer la thèse de la «guerre préventive» — ce qui est du plus haut intérêt, sachant que les livres de Suvorov sur la 2ème Guerre Mondiale, à l’exception du «Brise-glace», n’ont pas été traduits en anglais (l’une de ces voix est celle de l’historien Russell Stolfi, professeur d’Histoire Européenne Moderne à la Naval Postgraduate School à Monterey, Californie. Voir le compte-rendu de son livre Hitler’s Panzer East dans le JHR de nov-déc. 1995).

Toutes les réactions au travail de Suvorov n’ont pas été positives, cependant. Il a aussi provoqué des critiques et des répétitions des thèses officielles vieilles de plusieurs décennies. Parmi les nouveaux défenseurs les plus représentatifs de la ligne «orthodoxe», figurent les historiens Gabriel Gorodetsky de l’Université de Tel-Aviv, et John Ericson de l’Université d’Edinburgh.

Rejetant tous les arguments qui pourraient justifier l’attaque allemande, Gorodetsky en particulier critique et ridiculise les travaux de Suvorov, spécialement dans un livre proprement intitulé «Le Mythe du Brise-glace». En fait, Gorodetsky (et Ericson) attribue les pertes soviétiques à la supposée impréparation de l’Armée Rouge pour la guerre. «Il est absurde», écrit Gorodetsky, «de prétendre que Staline aurait jamais conçu l’idée d’attaquer l’Allemagne, comme quelques historiens allemands aiment aujourd’hui à le suggérer, pour pouvoir au moyen d’une attaque-surprise, désorganiser l’attaque préventive planifiée par l’Allemagne.»

Il n’est pas surprenant que Gorodetsky ait reçu l’éloge des autorités du Kremlin et des chefs militaires russes. De même, «l’establishment» allemand soutient l’historien israélien. Aux frais des contribuables allemands, Gorodetsky a travaillé et enseigné au Service de Recherche d’Histoire Militaire (MGFA) allemand, semi-officiel, qui a publié en avril 1991 le livre de Gorodetsky, Zwei Wege nach Moskau (Deux chemins pour Moscou).

Dans la «Dernière République», Suvorov répond à Gorodetsky et aux autres critiques de ses deux premiers livres sur l’histoire de la 2ème Guerre Mondiale. Il est particulièrement cinglant dans ses critiques du travail de Gorodetsky, spécialement le «Mythe du Brise-glace».

Quelques critiques

Suvorov écrit de manière caustique, sarcastique, et avec une grande acidité. Mais s’il a raison sur le fond, comme le pense l’auteur de cet article, il a — et nous aussi — parfaitement le droit d’être acerbe, ayant été trompé et désinformé pendant des décennies.

Bien que Suvorov mérite notre gratitude pour son importante dissection d’une légende historique, son travail n’est pas sans défauts. D’une part, son éloge des réalisations du complexe militaro-industriel soviétique, et de la qualité des armements et de l’équipement militaire soviétique est exagéré, voire dithyrambique. Il omet de signaler l’origine occidentale d’une grande partie de l’armement et du matériel soviétique. Les ingénieurs soviétiques ont eu un talent particulier pour modifier avec succès, simplifier, et souvent améliorer les modèles et les conceptions occidentaux. Par exemple, le robuste moteur Diesel utilisé par les chars soviétiques était basé sur un moteur d’avion allemand de BMW.

Une critique qui ne peut pas décemment être faite à Suvorov serait son manque de patriotisme. Se rappelant que les premières victimes du communisme furent les Russes, il fait à juste titre une nette distinction entre le peuple russe et le régime communiste qui le dominait. Il n’écrit pas seulement avec la compétence d’un historien capable, mais en mémoire des millions de Russes dont les vies furent gaspillées pour les plans malsains de «révolution mondiale» de Lénine et de Staline.

Original article: Journal of Historical Review, 17/4 (Juillet-Août 1998), 30-37. Online source of translation: http://library.flawlesslogic.com/suvorov_fr.htm ^[3]

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Exposing Stalin's Plan to Conquer Europe

Exposing Stalin’s Plan to Conquer Europe:
How the Soviet Union ‘Lost’ the Second World War

Daniel W. Michaels

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com/

Editor’s Note:

Since the publication of his review, Viktor Suvorov’s definitive statement of his research has been published as The Chief Culprit: Stalin’s Grand Design to Start World War II ^[2] (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2008).

French translation here ^[3]

Viktor Suvorov (Vladimir Rezun)
Poslednyaya Respublika (“The Last Republic”)
Moscow: TKO ACT, 1996

For several years now, a former Soviet military intelligence officer named Vladimir Rezun has provoked heated discussion in Russia for his startling view that Hitler attacked Soviet Russia in June 1941 just as Stalin was preparing to overwhelm Germany and western Europe as part of a well-planned operation to “liberate” all of Europe by bringing it under Communist rule.

Writing under the pen name of Viktor Suvorov, Rezun has developed this thesis in three books. Icebreaker (which has been published in an English-language edition) and Dni M (“M Day”) were reviewed in the Nov.–Dec. 1997 Journal of Historical Review. The third book, reviewed here, is a 470-page work, “The Last Republic: Why the Soviet Union Lost the Second World War,” published in Russian in Moscow in 1996.

Suvorov presents a mass of evidence to show that when Hitler launched his “Operation Barbarossa” attack against Soviet Russia on June 22, 1941, German forces were able to inflict enormous losses against the Soviets precisely because the Red troops were much better prepared for war — but for an aggressive war that was scheduled for early July — not the defensive war forced on them by Hitler’s preemptive strike.

In Icebreaker, Suvorov details the deployment of Soviet forces in June 1941, describing just how Stalin amassed vast numbers of troops and stores of weapons along the European frontier, not to defend the Soviet homeland but in preparation for a westward attack and decisive battles on enemy territory.

Thus, when German forces struck, the bulk of Red ground and air forces were concentrated along the Soviet western borders facing contiguous European countries, especially the German Reich and Romania, in final readiness for an assault on Europe.

In his second book on the origins of the war, “M Day” (for “Mobilization Day”), Suvorov details how, between late 1939 and the summer of 1941, Stalin methodically and systematically built up the best armed, most powerful military force in the world — actually the world’s first superpower — for his planned conquest of Europe. Suvorov explains how Stalin’s drastic conversion of the country’s economy for war actually made war inevitable.

A Global Soviet Union

In “The Last Republic,” Suvorov adds to the evidence presented in his two earlier books to strengthen his argument that Stalin was preparing for an aggressive war, in particular emphasizing the ideological motivation for the Soviet leader’s actions. The title refers to the unlucky country that would be incorporated as the “final republic” into the globe-encompassing “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,” thereby completing the world proletarian revolution.

As Suvorov explains, this plan was entirely consistent with Marxist-Leninist doctrine, as well as with Lenin’s policies in the earlier years of the Soviet regime. The Russian historian argues convincingly that it was not Leon Trotsky (Bronstein), but rather Stalin, his less flamboyant rival, who was really the faithful disciple of Lenin in promoting world Communist revolution. Trotsky insisted on his doctrine of “permanent revolution,” whereby the young Soviet state would help foment home-grown workers’ uprisings and revolution in the capitalist countries.

Stalin instead wanted the Soviet regime to take advantage of occasional “armistices” in the global struggle to consolidate Red military strength for the right moment when larger and better armed Soviet forces would strike into central and western Europe, adding new Soviet republics as this overwhelming force rolled across the continent. After the successful consolidation and Sovietization of all of Europe, the expanded USSR would be poised to impose Soviet power over the entire globe.

As Suvorov shows, Stalin realized quite well that, given a free choice, the people of the advanced Western countries would never voluntarily choose Communism. It would therefore have to be imposed by force. His bold plan, Stalin further decided, could be realized only through a world war.

A critical piece of evidence in this regard is his speech of August 19, 1939, recently uncovered in Soviet archives (quoted in part in the Nov.–Dec. 1997 Journal, pp. 32–33). In it, Lenin’s heir states:

The experience of the last 20 years has shown that in peacetime the Communist movement is never strong enough to seize power. The dictatorship of such a party will only become possible as the result of a major war . . .

Later on, all the countries who had accepted protection from resurgent Germany would also become our allies. We shall have a wide field to develop the world revolution.

Furthermore, and as Soviet theoreticians had always insisted, Communism could never peacefully coexist over the long run with other socio-political systems. Accordingly, Communist rule inevitably would have to be imposed throughout the world. So integral was this goal of “world revolution” to the nature and development of the “first workers’ state” that it was a cardinal feature of the Soviet agenda even before Hitler and his National Socialist movement came to power in Germany in 1933.

Stalin elected to strike at a time and place of his choosing. To this end, Soviet development of the most advanced offensive weapons systems, primarily tanks, aircraft, and airborne forces, had already begun in the early 1930s. To ensure the success of his bold undertaking, in late 1939 Stalin ordered the build up a powerful war machine that would be superior in quantity and quality to all possible opposing forces. His first secret order for the total military-industrial mobilization of the country was issued in August 1939. A second total mobilization order, this one for military mobilization, would be issued on the day the war was to begin.

Disappointment

The German “Barbarossa” attack shattered Stalin’s well-laid plan to “liberate” all of Europe. In this sense, Suvorov contends, Stalin “lost” the Second World War. The Soviet premier could regard “merely” defeating Germany and conquering eastern and central Europe only as a disappointment.

According to Suvorov, Stalin revealed his disappointment over the war’s outcome in several ways. First, he had Marshal Georgi Zhukov, not himself, the supreme commander, lead the victory parade in 1945. Second, no official May 9 victory parade was even authorized until after Stalin’s death. Third, Stalin never wore any of the medals he was awarded after the end of the Second World War. Fourth, once, in a depressed mood, he expressed to members of his close circle his desire to retire now that the war was over. Fifth, and perhaps most telling, Stalin abandoned work on the long-planned Palace of Soviets.

An Unfinished Monument

The enormous Palace of Soviets, approved by the Soviet government in the early 1930s, was to be 1,250 feet tall, surmounted with a statue of Lenin 300 feet in height — taller than New York’s Empire State Building. It was to be built on the site of the former Cathedral of Christ the Savior. On Stalin’s order, this magnificent symbol of old Russia was blown up in 1931 — an act whereby the nation’s Communist rulers symbolically erased the soul of old Russia to make room for the centerpiece of the world USSR.

All the world’s “socialist republics,” including the “last republic,” would ultimately be represented in the Palace. The main hall of this secular shrine was to be inscribed with the oath that Stalin had delivered in quasi-religious cadences at Lenin’s burial. It included the words: “When he left us, Comrade Lenin bequeathed to us the responsibility to strengthen and expand the Union of Socialist Republics. We vow to you, Comrade Lenin, that we shall honorably carry out this, your sacred commandment.”

However, only the bowl-shaped foundation for this grandiose monument was ever completed, and during the 1990s, after the collapse of the USSR, the Christ the Savior Cathedral was painstakingly rebuilt on the site.

The Official View

For decades the official version of the 1941–1945 German-Soviet conflict, supported by establishment historians in both Russia and the West, has been something like this:

Hitler launched a surprise “Blitzkrieg” attack against the woefully unprepared Soviet Union, fooling its leader, the unsuspecting and trusting Stalin. The German Führer was driven by lust for “living space” and natural resources in the primitive East, and by his long-simmering determination to smash “Jewish Communism” once and for all. In this treacherous attack, which was an important part of Hitler’s mad drive for “world conquest,” the “Nazi” or “fascist” aggressors initially overwhelmed all resistance with their preponderance of modern tanks and aircraft.

This view, which was affirmed by the Allied judges at the postwar Nuremberg Tribunal, is still widely accepted in both Russia and the United States. In Russia today, most of the general public (and not merely those who are nostalgic for the old Soviet regime), accepts this “politically correct” line. For one thing, it “explains” the Soviet Union’s enormous World War II losses in men and materiel.

Doomed from the Start

Contrary to the official view that the Soviet Union was not prepared for war in June 1941, in fact, Suvorov stresses, it was the Germans who were not really prepared. Germany’s hastily drawn up “Operation Barbarossa” plan, which called for a “Blitzkrieg” victory in four or five months by numerically inferior forces advancing in three broad military thrusts, was doomed from the outset.

Moreover, Suvorov goes on to note, Germany lacked the raw materials (including petroleum) essential in sustaining a drawn out war of such dimensions.

Another reason for Germany’s lack of preparedness, Suvorov contends, was that her military leaders seriously under-estimated the performance of Soviet forces in the Winter War against Finland, 1939–40. They fought, it must be stressed, under extremely severe winter conditions — temperatures of minus 40 degrees Celsius and snow depths of several feet — against the well-designed reinforced concrete fortifications and underground facilities of Finland’s “Mannerheim Line.” In spite of that, it is often forgotten, the Red Army did, after all, force the Finns into a humiliating armistice.

It is always a mistake, Suvorov emphasizes, to underestimate your enemy. But Hitler made this critical miscalculation. In 1943, after the tide of war had shifted against Germany, he admitted his mistaken evaluation of Soviet forces two years earlier.

Tank Disparity Compared

To prove that it was Stalin, and not Hitler, who was really prepared for war, Suvorov compares German and Soviet weaponry in mid-1941, especially with respect to the all-important offensive weapons systems — tanks and airborne forces. It is a generally accepted axiom in military science that attacking forces should have a numerical superiority of three to one over the defenders. Yet, as Suvorov explains, when the Germans struck on the morning of June 22, 1941, they attacked with a total of 3,350 tanks, while the Soviet defenders had a total of 24,000 tanks — that is, Stalin had seven times more tanks than Hitler, or 21 times more tanks than would have been considered sufficient for an adequate defense. Moreover, Suvorov stresses, the Soviet tanks were superior in all technical respects, including firepower, range, and armor plating.

As it was, Soviet development of heavy tank production had already begun in the early 1930s. For example, as early as 1933 the Soviets were already turning out in series production, and distributing to their forces, the T-35 model, a 45-ton heavy tank with three cannons, six machine guns, and 30-mm armor plating. By contrast, the Germans began development and production of a comparable 45-ton tank only after the war had begun in mid-1941.

By 1939 the Soviets had already added three heavy tank models to their inventory. Moreover, the Soviets designed their tanks with wider tracks, and to operate with diesel engines (which were less flammable than those using conventional carburetor mix fuels). Furthermore, Soviet tanks were built with both the engine and the drive in the rear, thereby improving general efficiency and operator viewing. German tanks had a less efficient arrangement, with the engine in the rear and the drive in the forward area.

When the conflict began in June 1941, Suvorov shows, Germany had no heavy tanks at all, only 309 medium tanks, and just 2,668 light, inferior tanks. For their part, the Soviets at the outbreak of the war had at their disposal tanks that were not only heavier but of higher quality.

In this regard, Suvorov cites the recollection of German tank general Heinz Guderian, who wrote in his memoir Panzer Leader (1952/1996, p. 143):

In the spring of 1941, Hitler had specifically ordered that a Russian military commission be shown over our tank schools and factories; in this order he had insisted that nothing be concealed from them. The Russian officers in question firmly refused to believe that the Panzer IV was in fact our heaviest tank. They said repeatedly that we must be hiding our newest models from them, and complained that we were not carrying out Hitler’s order to show them everything. The military commission was so insistent on this point that eventually our manufacturers and Ordnance Office officials concluded: “It seems that the Russians must already possess better and heavier tanks than we do.” It was at the end of July 1941 that the T34 tank appeared on the front and the riddle of the new Russian model was solved.

Suvorov cites another revealing fact from Robert Goralski’s World War II Almanac (1982, p. 164). On June 24, 1941 — just two days after the outbreak of the German-Soviet war:

The Russians introduced their giant Klim Voroshilov tanks into action near Raseiniai [Lithuania]. Models weighing 43 and 52 tons surprised the Germans, who found the KVs nearly unstoppable. One of these Russian tanks took 70 direct hits, but none penetrated its armor.

In short, Germany took on the Soviet colossus with tanks that were too light, too few in number, and inferior in performance and fire power. And this disparity continued as the war progressed. In 1942 alone, Soviet factories produced 2,553 heavy tanks, while the Germans produced just 89. Even at the end of the war, the best-quality tank in combat was the Soviet IS (“Iosef Stalin”) model.

Suvorov sarcastically urges establishment military historians to study a book on Soviet tanks by Igor P. Shmelev, published in 1993 by, of all things, the Hobby Book Publishing Company in Moscow. The work of an honest amateur military analyst such as Shmelev, one who is sincerely interested in and loves his hobby and the truth, says Suvorov, is often superior to that of a paid government employee.

Airborne Forces Disparity

Even more lopsided was the Soviet superiority in airborne forces. Before the war, Soviet DB-3f and SB bombers as well as the TB-1 and TB-3 bombers (of which Stalin had about a thousand had been modified to carry airborne troops as well as bomb loads. By mid-1941 the Soviet military had trained hundreds of thousands of paratroopers (Suvorov says almost a million) for the planned attack against Germany and the West. These airborne troops were to be deployed and dropped behind enemy lines in several waves, each wave consisting of five airborne assault corps (VDKs), each corps consisting of 10,419 men, staff and service personnel, an artillery division, and a separate tank battalion (50 tanks). Suvorov lists the commanding officers and home bases of the first two waves or ten corps. The second and third wave corps included troops who spoke French and Spanish.

Because the German attack prevented these highly trained troops from being used as originally planned, Stalin converted them to “guards divisions,” which he used as reserves and “fire brigades” in emergency situations, much as Hitler often deployed Waffen SS forces.

Maps and Phrase Books

In support of his main thesis, Suvorov cites additional data that were not mentioned in his two earlier works on this subject. First, on the eve of the outbreak of the 1941 war Soviet forces had been provided topographical maps only of frontier and European areas; they were not issued maps to defend Soviet territory or cities, because the war was not to be fought in the homeland. The head of the Military Topographic Service at the time, and therefore responsible for military map distribution, Major General M. K. Kudryavtsev, was not punished or even dismissed for failing to provide maps of the homeland, but went on to enjoy a lengthy and successful military career. Likewise, the chief of the General Staff, General Zhukov, was never held responsible for the debacle of the first months of the war. None of the top military commanders could be held accountable, Suvorov points out, because they had all followed Stalin’s orders to the letter.

Second, in early June 1941 the Soviet armed forces began receiving thousands of copies of a Russian-German phrase book, with sections dedicated to such offensive military operations as seizing railroad stations, orienting parachutists, and so forth, and such useful expressions as “Stop transmitting or I’ll shoot.” This phrase book was produced in great numbers by the military printing houses in both Leningrad and Moscow. However, they never reached the troops on the front lines, and are said to have been destroyed in the opening phase of the war.

Aid from the ‘Neutral’ United States

As Suvorov notes, the United States had been supplying Soviet Russia with military hardware since the late 1930s. He cites Antony C. Sutton’s study, National Suicide (Arlington House, 1973), which reports that in 1938 President Roosevelt entered into a secret agreement with the USSR to exchange military information. For American public consumption, though, Roosevelt announced the imposition of a “moral embargo” on Soviet Russia.

In the months prior to America’s formal entry into war (December 1941), Atlantic naval vessels of the ostensibly neutral United States were already at war against German naval forces. (See Mr. Roosevelt’s Navy: The Private War of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet, 1939–1942 by Patrick Abbazia [Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1975]). And two days after the “Barbarossa” strike, Roosevelt announced US aid to Soviet Russia in its war for survival against the Axis. Thus, at the outbreak of the “Barbarossa” attack, Hitler wrote in a letter to Mussolini: “At this point it makes no difference whether America officially enters the war or not, it is already supporting our enemies in full measure with mass deliveries of war materials.”

Similarly, Winston Churchill was doing everything in his power during the months prior to June 1941 — when British forces were suffering one military defeat after another — to bring both the United States and the Soviet Union into the war on Britain’s side. In truth, the “Big Three” anti-Hitler coalition (Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill) was effectively in place even before Germany attacked Russia, and was a major reason why Hitler felt compelled to strike against Soviet Russia, and to declare war on the United States five months later. (See Hitler’s speech of December 11, 1941, published in the Winter 1988–89 Journal, pp. 394–96, 402–12.)

The reasons for Franklin Roosevelt’s support for Stalin are difficult to pin down. President Roosevelt himself once explained to William Bullitt, his first ambassador to Soviet Russia: “I think that if I give him [Stalin] everything I possibly can, and ask nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he won’t try to annex anything, and will work with me for a world of peace and democracy.” (Cited in: Robert Nisbet, Roosevelt and Stalin: The Failed Courtship [1989], p. 6.) Perhaps the most accurate (and kindest) explanation for Roosevelt’s attitude is a profound ignorance, self-deception or naiveté. In the considered view of George Kennan, historian and former high-ranking US diplomat, in foreign policy Roosevelt was “a very superficial man, ignorant, dilettantish, with a severely limited intellectual horizon.”

A Desperate Gamble

Suvorov admits to being fascinated with Stalin, calling him “an animal, a wild, bloody monster, but a genius of all times and peoples.” He commanded the greatest military power in the Second World War, the force that more than any other defeated Germany. Especially in the final years of the conflict, he dominated the Allied military alliance. He must have regarded Roosevelt and Churchill contemptuously as useful idiots.

In early 1941 everyone assumed that because Germany was still militarily engaged against Britain in north Africa, in the Mediterranean, and in the Atlantic, Hitler would never permit entanglement in a second front in the East. (Mindful of the disastrous experience of the First World War, he had warned in Mein Kampf of the mortal danger of a two front war.) It was precisely because he was confident that Stalin assumed Hitler would not open a second front, contends Suvorov, that the German leader felt free to launch “Barbarossa.” This attack, insists Suvorov, was an enormous and desperate gamble. But threatened by superior Soviet forces poised to overwhelm Germany and Europe, Hitler had little choice but to launch this preventive strike.

But it was too little, too late. In spite of the advantage of striking first, it was the Soviets who finally prevailed. In the spring of 1945, Red army troops succeeded in raising the red banner over the Reichstag building in Berlin. It was due only to the immense sacrifices of German and other Axis forces that Soviet troops did not similarly succeed in raising the Red flag over Paris, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Rome, Stockholm, and, perhaps, London.

The Debate Sharpens

In spite of resistance from “establishment” historians (who in Russia are often former Communists), support for Suvorov’s “preventive strike” thesis has been growing both in Russia and in western Europe. Among those who sympathize with Suvorov’s views are younger Russian historians such as Yuri L. Dyakov, Tatyana S. Bushuyeva, and I. V. Pavlova. (See the Nov.–Dec. 1997 Journal, pp. 32–34.)

With regard to 20th-century history, American historians are generally more close-minded than their counterparts in Europe or Russia. But even in the United States there have been a few voices of support for the “preventive war” thesis — which is all the more noteworthy considering that Suvorov’s books on World War II, with the exception of Icebreaker, have not been available in English. (One such voice is that of historian Russell Stolfi, a professor of Modern European History at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. See the review of his book Hitler’s Panzers East in the Nov.–Dec. 1995 Journal of Historical Review.) Not all the response to Suvorov’s work has been positive, though. It has also prompted criticism and renewed affirmations of the decades-old orthodox view. Among the most prominent new defenders of the orthodox “line” are historians Gabriel Gorodetsky of Tel Aviv University, and John Ericson of Edinburgh University.

Rejecting all arguments that might justify Germany’s attack, Gorodetsky in particular castigates and ridicules Suvorov’s works, most notably in a book titled, appropriately, “The Icebreaker Myth.” In effect, Gorodetsky (and Ericson) attribute Soviet war losses to the supposed unpreparedness of the Red Army for war. “It is absurd,” Gorodetsky writes, “to claim that Stalin would ever entertain any idea of attacking Germany, as some German historians now like to suggest, in order, by means of a surprise attack, to upset Germany’s planned preventive strike.”

Not surprisingly, Gorodetsky has been praised by Kremlin authorities and Russian military leaders. Germany’s “establishment” similarly embraces the Israeli historian. At German taxpayers expense, he has worked and taught at Germany’s semi-official Military History Research Office (MGFA), which in April 1991 published Gorodetsky’s Zwei Wege nach Moskau (“Two Paths to Moscow”).

In the “Last Republic,” Suvorov responds to Gorodetsky and other critics of his first two books on Second World War history. He is particularly scathing in his criticisms of Gorodetsky’s work, especially “The Icebreaker Myth.”

Some Criticisms

Suvorov writes caustically, sarcastically, and with great bitterness. But if he is essentially correct, as this reviewer believes, he — and we — have a perfect right to be bitter for having been misled and misinformed for decades.

Although Suvorov deserves our gratitude for his important dissection of historical legend, his work is not without defects. For one thing, his praise of the achievements of the Soviet military industrial complex, and the quality of Soviet weaponry and military equipment, is exaggerated, perhaps even panegyric. He fails to acknowledge the Western origins of much of Soviet weaponry and hardware. Soviet engineers developed a knack for successfully modifying, simplifying and, often, improving, Western models and designs. For example, the rugged diesel engine used in Soviet tanks was based on a German BMW aircraft diesel.

One criticism that cannot in fairness be made of Suvorov is a lack of patriotism. Mindful that the first victims of Communism were the Russians, he rightly draws a sharp distinction between the Russian people and the Communist regime that ruled them. He writes not only with the skill of an able historian, but with reverence for the millions of Russians whose lives were wasted in the insane plans of Lenin and Stalin for “world revolution.”

Originally published in the Journal of Historical Review 17, no. 4 (July–August 1998), 30–37. Online source: http://library.flawlesslogic.com/suvorov.htm ^[4]

See also the National Vanguard review of Icebreaker here ^[5] and Hitler’s Reichstag speech of December 11, 1941 here ^[6].

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Article printed from Counter-Currents Publishing: http://www.counter-currents.com

URL to article: http://www.counter-currents.com/2011/04/exposing-stalins-plan-to-conquer-europe/

URLs in this post:

[1] Image: http://www.counter-currents.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/stalin_victory.jpg

[2] The Chief Culprit: Stalin’s Grand Design to Start World War II: http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591148383/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=countecurrenp-20&linkCode=as2&camp=217145&creative=399349&creativeASIN=1591148383

[3] here: http://www.counter-currents.com/2011/04/le-plan-de-staline-pour-conquerir-leurope-comment-lunion-sovietique-%C2%ABperdit%C2%BB-la-2eme-guerre-mondiale/

[4] http://library.flawlesslogic.com/suvorov.htm: http://library.flawlesslogic.com/suvorov.htm

[5] here: http://www.natvan.com/national-vanguard/115/icebreak.html

[6] here: http://ihr.org/jhr/v08/v08p389_Hitler.html

Moi, l'interprète de Staline

Archives de SYNERGIES EUROPEENNES - 1992

Moi, l'inteprète de Staline

Valentin M. BERESCHKOW, Ich war Stalins Dolmetscher. Hinter den Kulis­sen der politischen Weltbühne, Univer­sitas, München, 1991, 517 S., DM 48, ISBN 3-8004-1228-4.

Parues dès 1949 sous le titre de Statist auf diplo­matischer Bühne  (Figurant sur la scène diplo­matique), les mémoires de l'interprète de Hitler, le Dr. Paul Schmidt constituent un ouvrage de référence majeur sur l'histoire du IIIième Reich et de sa politique étrangère, un ouvrage qui défie les années. On ne peut en dire autant des mé­moires que vient de publier l'interprète de Sta­line, Valentin M. Bereschkow (en graphie fran­­cisée: Berechkov). Celui-ci, né en 1916, est l'un des derniers survivants de l'entourage im­médiat du dictateur soviétique. Les pages qu'il consacre à son enfance et à sa jeunesse, ses étu­des et son service militaire dans l'armée rouge, sont pourtant très intéressantes et riches en in­formations de toutes sortes.

Par l'intermédiaire de ses supérieurs hiérar­chiques à l'armée, Berechkov est entré de plein pied dans le saint des saints de la grande poli­tique soviétique. Grâce à ses connaissances lin­­guistiques de très grande qualité, il est rapi­dement devenu l'un des collaborateurs les plus proches de Staline. Ce qu'il nous raconte à pro­pos du dictateur géorgien relève de la «pers­pec­tive du valet de chambre». Berechkov s'efforce en effet de présenter Staline comme un homme aimable, bon compagnon de tous les jours, in­ca­pable de faire le moindre mal à une mouche en privé. Berechkov confesse qu'il n'en croyait pas ses oreilles quand le pouvoir sovié­tique se mit à dénoncer les crimes de Staline à partir de 1956. C'est bien ce qui distingue l'ouvrage de Berech­kov des mémoires de Krouchtchev et de toutes les biographies conven­tionnelles de Staline...

Le livre de Berechkov nous révèle des anecdotes ou des secrets de première importance lorsqu'il aborde les tractations engagées par Staline avec Ribbentrop, Churchill ou Roosevelt. En fait, rien de tout cela n'est bien neuf mais est replacé sous un jour nouveau. Ce qui intéressera le lecteur en premier lieu sont évidemment les passages qui traitent du rapport entre Staline et l'Allemagne. Berechkov tient absolument à blanchir Staline; pour l'interprète, le dictateur soviétique ne sa­vait rien des préparatifs allemands d'envahir l'URSS à l'été 1941. Staline refusait d'ajouter foi aux avertissements dans ce sens. Quand l'atta­que s'est déclenchée, il en fut si choqué qu'il se retira du monde pendant dix jours, in­capable de prendre les décisions politiques et mi­litaires qui s'imposaient.

Berechkov défend donc Staline avec véhémence et insistance, ce qui est d'autant plus suspect que plus d'une analyse politique récente démontre que Staline avait en toute conscience adopté une «stratégie sur le long terme» (Ernst Topitsch), visant à faire basculer l'Union Soviétique dans la guerre. Berechkov cherche donc, selon toute vrai­semblance, à dépeindre un Staline «sau­veur de la Russie» dans la «grande guerre pa­trio­tique» quoique criminel sur le plan inté­rieur. Pour savoir ce qu'il en est exactement, il faudra attendre que soient enfin ouvertes au pu­blic les archives soviétiques. En attendant, les assertions de Berechkov doivent être accueillies avec circonspection.

Hans Cornelius.

(recension parue dans Junge Freiheit, März 1991).

 

La guerre de Staline - Une nouvelle vision de la guerre à l'Est

La guerre de Staline

Une nouvelle vision de la guerre à l'Est

 

Dr. Karl Otto Braun

 

On a dit que Staline avait été le grand vainqueur de la seconde guerre mondiale. Cette évidence et la façon dont Staline a contribué à provoquer cette guerre, en appliquant la stratégie du long terme, préalablement définie par Lénine, tel est le contenu d'un livre qui a suscité beaucoup d'attention Outre-Rhin, celui du Professeur de sociologie de Graz (Autriche), le Dr. Ernst Topitsch: Stalins Krieg. Die sowjetische Langzeitstrategie gegen den Westen als rationale Machtpolitik (Günter Olzog Verlag, Munich, 1985, 160 pages, DM 22,-; trad. du titre: La guerre de Staline. La stratégie soviétique du long terme contre l'Ouest en tant que politique rationnelle de puissance). Par son livre, le Dr. Topitsch jette un regard complètement nouveau sur l'histoire de la dernière guerre et nous force à émettre des jugements très différents de ceux que l'on a eu l'habitude de poser depuis 1945. Le Dr. Karl Otto Braun nous donne, dans le texte qui suit, son opinion sur cet ouvrage fondamental qui oblige à une révision complète de l'histoire des rapports germano-soviétiques de ces cinquante dernières années.

 

Si nous devions faire jouer l'histoire du monde sur une scène de théâtre, l'acte qui narrerait la seconde guerre mondiale aurait quatre personnages principaux: Roosevelt, Staline, Churchill et Hitler. Les projecteurs, dont le faisceau lumineux serait dirigé par les vainqueurs et les “juges” de Nuremberg, éclairerait uniquement Adolf Hitler, ses SS et ses camps de concentration. Les actes criminels perpétrés par ses adversaires, eux, en revanche, resteraient dans l'ombre, surtout les massacres collectifs de Staline, ceux qu'il a commis contre ses concitoyens koulaks, contre les Ukrainiens, les Polonais, les juifs sionistes et d'autres. Rappelons que l'on a interdit aux Allemands de procéder à des comparaisons historiques. Toute comparaison, dit-on, fausserait le calcul.

 

Les historiens qui osent faire dévier le faisceau lumineux de ces projecteurs, on les appelle des “révisionnistes”. Les Allemands, échaudés, tremblants de peur, blêmes de frousse, n'osent pas toucher aux projecteurs. C'est pourquoi, ironie de l'histoire, les historiens américains ont été les premiers à bousculer les tabous et à braquer les projecteurs sur les crimes des Américains ou plutôt sur les crimes de leur Président, qu'ils ont élu quatre fois de suite, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Plus on libère les documents secrets, plus on s'aperçoit que le peuple américain a choisi comme Président un adepte fanatique du dieu Mars. “Il nous a menti pendant la guerre”, disait une publiciste américaine réputée. “He was the greatest liar who ever sat in the White House” (“Il a été le plus grand menteur qui ait jamais siégé à la Maison Blanche”), me disait en 1983 l'adversaire le plus acharné de Roosevelt sur la scène de la politique intérieure américaine, Hamilton Fish (dont les mémoires sont parues en allemand en 1982: H.F., Der Zerbrochene Mythos, F. D. Roosevelts Kriegspolitik 1933-1945, Grabert Verlag, Tübingen, 1982; trad. du titre: Le mythe brisé. La politique de guerre de F.D. Roosevelt entre 1933 et 1945). Donc les Allemands n'ont pas été les seuls à avoir un “Führer” qui vénérait un peu trop le dieu Mars.

 

Mis à part quelques prédécesseurs malchanceux, condamnés par la conspiration du silence, comme par exemple Sündermann et von Richthofen, quelques historiens allemands osent enfin, après une sorte de commotion qui dure depuis plus de quarante ans, modifier la position des projecteurs. Parmi eux, Dirk Bavendamm, à qui on doit un ouvrage magistral, [édité à très gros tirages, disponible en livre de poche, ndt]: Roosevelts Weg zum Krieg (Herbig, Munich, 1983; trad. du titre: Le chemin de Roosevelt vers la guerre). Son éclairage met en exergue Roosevelt en tant que fauteur de guerre, et confirme les thèses de plusieurs historiens américains comme Beard, Barnes, Chamberlin, Tansill, Hoggan, Martin et quelques autres.

 

Ernst Topitsch, quant à lui, braque le faisceau du projecteur sur Staline. Il écrit: “Ainsi, nous observons d'importantes mutations de perspective. Hitler et l'Allemagne nationale-socialiste perdent en quelque sorte leur centralité et déchoient pratiquement au rang d'un phénomène épisodique, de pièces dans ce jeu d'échecs qu'était la stratégie à long terme inaugurée par Lénine pour soumettre le monde capitaliste”. Staline, le “Géorgien démoniaque”, est rigoureusement resté fidèle à la conception de Lénine et a hissé la Russie au rang de superpuissance. Topitsch écrit: “Au fur et à mesure que le temps passe, nous nous apercevons de plus en plus clairement que Staline n'est pas seulement un géant de l'histoire russe comme Ivan le Terrible ou Pierre le Grand, mais aussi un géant de l'histoire mondiale” (p. 7).

 

Hitler, dans sa juste lutte contre les implications du Traité de Versailles, mène des négociations avec les Soviétiques, en concurrence avec les Anglais et les Français qui négocient de leur côté, et gagne cette première manche, surtout parce que ses vues sur la question polonaise plaisent mieux aux Russes, signe ensuite le Pacte Ribbentrop/Molotov et permet ainsi aux Soviétiques d'amorcer leur grande marche vers l'Ouest en conquérant les Pays Baltes et la Bessarabie. Le tribut que Hitler a payé à Staline à modelé le destin du monde à venir. Mais Staline n'était pas prêt à se contenter de ces gains territoriaux, pourtant très importants. Il s'est d'abord attaqué à la Finlande, alors que ce pays du Nord ne l'avait nullement provoqué. Ensuite, il a obligé son ministre des affaires étrangères Molotov à formuler à Berlin en novembre 1940 des exigences que l'Allemagne ne pouvait satisfaire et devait immanquablement rejetter, si elle ne voulait pas capituler sans broncher devant Staline. “Tout autre homme d'Etat allemand que Hitler, dans une telle situation, aurait réfléchi à la manière d'échapper à temps à cet étranglement” (p. 97).

 

Lors de l'entrevue de Berlin en novembre 1940, Molotov a une nouvelle fois insisté pour que les exigences soviétiques sur la Finlande soient satisfaites, a rappelé les intérêts russes en Bulgarie, en Roumanie, en Hongrie, en Yougoslavie et en Grèce. Mais il ne s'est pas contenté de réitérer ces vieilles revendications du panslavisme: il a soulevé les problèmes de la neutralité suédoise et du droit de passage dans le Sund, jusqu'au Kattegat et au Skarregak (p. 95). Ensuite, il a demandé à ses interlocuteurs allemands s'ils étaient d'accord pour prendre des mesures diplomatiques et militaires communes avec l'URSS et l'Italie au cas où la Turquie s'opposerait aux projets russes (p. 96). Toutes ces exigences dépassaient de loin les revendications russes traditionnelles, formulées de Pierre le Grand à Alexandre Isvolsky (p. 98). Topitsch estime néanmoins que les revendications de Molotov relèvent d'une “logique implacable”. Molotov voulait provoquer les Allemands, cherchait à faire endosser à Hitler l'opprobe de l'agresseur, de façon à ce que les intentions belliqueuses et conquérantes de Staline passent pour une “guerre patriotique et défensive”.

 

La stratégie à long terme de Moscou, après l'élimination de la France en 1940, de détruire définitivement le Reich, en tant que dernier bastion contre la domination absolue du bolchévisme en Europe. La réélection de Roosevelt le 5 octobre 1940 donnait le feu vert à Staline. Il pouvait désormais laisser libre cours à sa politique anti-allemande. Mais, but ultime de sa stratégie inspirée de Lénine, il avait également l'intention de jeter les Américains hors d'Europe.

 

En signant un pacte de neutralité avec le Japon le 13 avril 1941, Staline poursuivait une politique analogue: il voulait impliquer l'Empire du Soleil Levant dans un conflit de longue durée avec les Etats-Unis, tout comme il avait incité les Allemands à en découdre avec la Pologne (pp. 105-106). Tant les Polonais que Roosevelt adoptèrent aussitôt une attitude provocante. Le Kremlin renforça ses positions en Sibérie et face à la Chine. Il préparait cette dernière à une prise du pouvoir par les communistes, bien qu'officiellement il soutenait Tchang Kai-Tchek. Dans cette volte-face audacieuse, ce coup de poker, Staline a bénéficié non seulement de la “myopie américaine”, comme le souligne Topitsch, mais aussi du travail des agents soviétiques influents introduits dans les rouages du pouvoir à Washington, surtout dans le célèbre Institute of Pacific Relations, où ils étaient très nombreux. Parmi les thèmes principaux du livre de Topitsch: le long combat occulte de Staline contre son allié anglo-saxon.

 

En été 1941, l'attaque allemande a d'abord paru réussir et les plans de grande envergure et les préparatifs militaires de Staline semblaient se solder par un cuisant échec. Le dictateur soviétique avait massé ses divisions offensives trop loin à l'Ouest parce qu'il leur imputait une puissance défensive qu'elles n'avaient en fait pas. Quand la guerre a éclaté, les capacités défensives de l'Armée Rouge se sont révélées nulles. “Les hommes politiques anglo-saxons qui étaient au pouvoir ne se sont pas aperçu qu'ils se trouvaient dans la situation où Staline avait toujours voulu qu'ils soient... Pour cela, il n'y a pas eu besoin d'un "changement d'alliance", mais seulement d'un dosage adéquat des aides à l'Union Soviétique et des opérations contre l'Allemagne” (p. 134). Topitsch écrit avec raison que c'est ainsi que l'Amérique et l'Angleterre ont gâché le rôle d'arbitres du monde qui leur était tombé entre les mains. En jouant sur les deux tableaux, ils auraient évité la soviétisation de l'Europe centrale et orientale.

 

A l'avant-dernière page de son livre, Topitsch évoque “Roosevelt empétré dans l'internationalisme maçonnique”. En écrivant cette phrase, il fait allusion aux conspirations qui se trament dans les coulisses de l'histoire. Mais il faudrait encore écrire un livre entier sur ces conspirations qui mènent le monde: il serait capital pour tous ceux qui veulent appréhender la vérité historique dans toute sa lumière; pour l'écrire, il nous faudrait évidemment des historiens capables d'étayer leurs preuves.

 

Terminons par une remarque critique: nous nous sommes préoccupé à plusieurs reprises des “conversations avec Hitler” de Hermann Rauschning. Cet ouvrage, si largement diffusé, considéré comme un “classique”, est décortiqué aujourd'hui par un historien suisse, membre du “Centre de Recherches historiques d'Ingolstadt” (Zeitgeschichtliche Forschungsstelle Ingolstadt). Conclusion de ses recherches: ce best-seller est une compilation de récits falsifiés.   

 

Opération Barbarossa: forces en présences et conclusions à tirer

 

Archives de SYNERGIES EUROPEENNES - 1991

 

 

Opération Barbarossa: les forces en présence et les conclusions qu'on peut en tirer

 

par Joachim F. WEBER

 

Un matin d'été, 3 h 30. La nuit est sombre du Cap Nord à la Mer Noire. Tout d'un coup, l'air est déchiré par le fracas assourdissant des canons. Des milliers d'obus forment une pluie d'acier et martèlent le versant sovié­tique de cette frontière. Les positions avan­cées de l'Armée rouge sont matraquées. Et quand les premières lueurs du jour appa­raissent, la Wehrmacht allemande et ses al­liés franchissent la frontière et pénètrent en URSS.

 

C'était le 22 juin 1941. Un jour historique où l'Allemagne a joué son destin. La lutte âpre qui commence en ce jour va se terminer un peu moins de quatre années plus tard, dans les ruines de la capitale allemande, à Berlin. Pendant 45 ans, on nous a répété que cette défaite était le juste salaire, bien mérité, de l'acte que nous avions commis ce 22 juin. L'historiographie des vainqueurs de 1945 et de leur clientèle parmi les vaincus a pré­senté pendant plusieurs décennies l' comme une guerre d'ex­ter­mination minutieusement planifiée, per­pé­trée par des parjures qui n'avaient pas res­pecté le pacte qui nous liait à notre voisine de l'Est. Les historiens qui osaient émettre des opinions différentes de celles imposées par cette sotériologie offi­cielle n'ont pas rigolé pen­dant quarante-cinq ans! Mais au­jour­d'hui, alors que l'ordre éta­bli à Yalta s'ef­fondre, de gros lambeaux de légende s'en vont également en quenouille. En cette année 1991, cinquante ans après les événements, on pourrait pourtant examiner les tenants et aboutissants de cette guerre et de ses prolé­go­mènes sans s'encombrer du moindre dog­me. En effet, on est impres­sionné par le grand nombre d'indices qui tendent à réfuter la thèse officielle d'une at­taque délibérée et injustifiée contre une Union Soviétique qui ne s'y attendait pas. Ces indices sont telle­ment nombreux qu'on peut se demander com­ment des historiens osent encore défen­dre cette thèse officielle, sans craindre de ne plus être pris au sé­rieux. Nous savons dé­sor­mais assez de choses sur ce qui s'est passé avant juin 1941, pour ne plus avoir honte de dire que l'attaque allemande du 22 juin a bel et bien été une guerre préventive.

 

Un vieux débat

 

Pourtant ce débat pour savoir si l' a été une attaque délibérée ou une guerre préventive n'est ni nouveau ni ori­ginal. Les deux positions se reflétaient déjà dans les déclarations officielles des an­tagonistes dès le début du conflit. Le débat est donc aussi ancien que l'affrontement lui-même. L'enjeu de ce débat, aujourd'hui, est de savoir si l'on veut continuer à regarder l'histoire dans la perspective des vainqueurs ou non.

 

L'ébranlement des armées allemandes qui a commencé en ce jour de juin a d'abord été couronné d'un succès militaire sans précé­dant. Effectivement, le coup brutal asséné par les troupes allemandes surprend la plu­part des unités soviétiques. Par centaines, les avions soviétiques sont détruits au sol; les positions d'artillerie et les concentrations de troupes sont annihilées. Au prix de lourdes pertes en matériel, les Soviétiques sont con­traints de reculer. Dès le début du mois de juillet, commencent les grandes batailles d'en­cerclement, où des centaines de milliers de soldats soviétiques sont faits prisonniers. En tout et pour tout, l'URSS perd, au cours des trois premières semaines de la guerre, 400.000 hommes, 7600 chars et 6200 avions: une saignée inimaginable.

 

C'est après ces succès inouïs que le chef de l'état-major général de l'armée de terre al­lemande, le Colonel-Général Halder, écrit dans son journal: . Une erreur d'appré­cia­tion, comme on n'en a jamais vue. Car au bout de 1396 jours, la campagne la plus coû­teuse que l'Allemagne ait jamais déclen­chée, se termine par une défaite.

 

Le désastre soviétique

 

Pourtant, le désastre soviétique paraissait complet. Au vu de celui-ci, on comprend l'eu­phorie de Halder, même si on ne prend pas seulement en considération les deux pre­mières semaines de la guerre mais ses six premiers mois. Jusqu'à la fin de l'année 1941, la Wehrmacht fait environ trois mil­lions de prisonniers soviétiques. C'est l'am­pleur de ces pertes qui incite les défen­seurs de la thèse de l'attaque délibérée à jus­tifier leur point de vue: en effet, ces pertes ten­de­raient à prouver que l'Union Soviétique n'é­tait pas préparée à la guerre, qu'elle ne se doutait de rien et qu'elle a été complètement surprise par l'attaque allemande.

 

Il est exact de dire, en effet, que l'Union So­vié­tique n'avait pas imaginé que l'Alle­ma­gne l'attaquerait. Néanmoins, il est tout-à-fait incongru de conclure que l'Union Sovié­tique ne s'était pas préparée à la guerre. Sta­line avait bel et bien préparé une guerre, mais pas celle qu'il a été obligé de mener à partir de juin 41. Pour les officiers de l'état-major allemand comme pour tous les ob­ser­va­teurs spécialisés dans les ques­tions mili­tai­res, c'est devenu un lieu com­mun, depuis 1941, de dire que l'avance alle­mande vers l'Est a précédé de peu une avance soviétique vers l'Ouest, qui aurait été menée avec beau­coup plus de moyens. La vé­rité, c'est que le déploiement soviétique, pré­lude à l'ébran­le­ment des armées de Staline vers l'Ouest, n'a pas eu le temps de s'achever.

 

Comparer les forces

et les effectifs en pré­sence

 

Lorsque l'on compare les forces et les effec­tifs en présence, on en retire d'intéressantes leçons. On ne peut affirmer que la Wehr­macht allemande  —sauf dans quelques uni­tés d'attaque aux effectifs ré­duits et à l'affec­tation localisée—  était supé­rieure en nom­bre. Les quelque 150 divisions allemandes (dont 19 blindées et 15 motori­sées), qui sont passées à l'attaque, se trou­vaient en face de 170 divisions soviétiques massées dans la zone frontalière. Parmi ces divisions sovié­tiques, 46 étaient blindées et motorisées. En matériel lourd, la supériorité soviétique était écrasante. Les unités alle­mandes attaquan­tes disposaient de 3000 chars et de 2500 a­vions, inclus dans les esca­drilles du front; face à eux, l'Armée Rouge aligne 24.000 chars (dont 12.000 dans les ré­gions mili­tai­res proches de la frontière) et 8.000 avions. Pour ce qui concerne les pièces d'artillerie, la Wehrmacht dispose de 7000 tubes et les Soviétiques de 40.000! Si l'on in­clut dans ces chiffres les mortiers, le rapport est de 40.000 contre 150.000 en faveur des Soviétiques. Le 22 juin, l'Armée soviétique aligne 4,7 mil­lions de soldats et dispose d'une réserve mo­bilisable de plus de 10 mil­lions d'hommes.

 

Les Landser allemands avançant sur le front russe constatent très vite comment les choses s'agençaient, côté soviétique: effecti­vement, les pertes soviétiques sont colos­sales, mais, ce qui les étonne plus encore, c'était la quantité de matériels que les Sovié­tiques étaient en mesure d'acheminer. Les Allemands abattent quinze bombardiers so­vié­tiques et voilà qu'aussitôt vingt autres sur­gissent. Quand les Allemands arrêtent la contre-attaque d'un bataillon de chars sovié­tiques, ils sont sûrs que, très rapidement, une nouvelle contre-attaque se déclenchera, ap­puyée par des effectifs doublés.

 

Un matériel soviétique

d'une qualité irrépro­chable

 

Sur le plan de la qualité du matériel, la Wehr­macht n'a jamais pu rivaliser avec ses ad­versaires soviétiques. Alors qu'une bonne part des blindés soviétiques appartiennent aux types lourdement cuirassés KV et T-34 (une arme très moderne pour son temps), les Allemands ne peuvent leur opposer, avant 1942, aucun modèle équivalent. La plupart des unités allemandes sont dotées de Panzer I et de Panzer II, totalement dépassés, et de chars tchèques, pris en 1938/39.

 

Pourquoi l'Allemagne ne peut-elle rien jeter de plus dans la balance? Pour une raison très simple: après la victoire de France, l'in­dustrie allemande de l'armement, du moins dans la plupart des domaines cru­ciaux, a­vait été remise sur pied de paix. Ainsi, les usines de munitions (tant pour l'infanterie que pour l'artillerie) avaient ré­duit leurs cadences, comme le prouvent les chiffres de la production au cours de ces mois-là. Est-ce un indice prouvant que l'Allemagne prépa­rait de longue date une guerre offensive?

 

Concentration et vulnérabilité

 

Mais cette réduction des cadences dans l'in­dustrie de l'armement n'est qu'un tout petit élément dans une longue suite d'indices. Surgit alors une question que l'on est en droit de poser: la supériorité sovié­tique était si impressionnante, comment se fait-il que la Wehrmacht n'ait pas été battue dès 1941 et que l'Armée Rouge ait dû at­tendre 1944-45 pour vaincre?. La réponse est sim­ple: parce le gros des forces soviétiques était déjà massé dans les zones de rassem­ble­ment, prêt à passer à l'attaque. Cette énorme concentration d'hommes et de ma­tériels a scellé le destin de l'Armée Rouge en juin 1941. En effet, les unités militaires sont ex­ces­­sivement vulnérables lorsqu'elles sont con­centrées, lorsqu'elles ne se sont pas en­co­re déployées et qu'elles manœuvrent avant d'a­voir pu établir leurs positions. A ces mo­ments-là, chars et camions roulent pare-chocs contre pare-chocs; les colonnes de vé­hicules s'étirent sur de longs kilomètres sans protection aucune; sur les aérodromes, les avions sont rangés les uns à côté des au­tres.

 

Aucune armée au monde n'a jamais pris de telles positions pour se défendre. Tout état-ma­jor qui planifie une défense, éparpille ses troupes, les dispose dans des secteurs forti­fiables, aptes à assurer une défense efficace. Toute option défensive prévoit le creusement de réseaux de tranchées, fortifie les positions existantes, installe des champs de mines. Sta­line n'a rien fait de tout cela. Au con­trai­re: après la campagne de Pologne et à la veil­le de la guerre avec l'Allemagne, Staline a fait démanteler presque entièrement la ligne dé­fensive russe qui courait tout au long de la frontière polono-soviétique pour préve­nir tou­te réédition des attaques polonaises; mieux, cette ligne avait été renforcée sur une pro­fon­deur de 200 à 300 km. Or, pourtant, l'Armée Rouge, pendant la guerre de l'hiver 1939-40 con­tre la Finlande, avait payé un très lourd tribut pour franchir le dispositif défen­sif fin­landais. Toutes les mesures défen­sives, tou­tes les mesures de renforcement des défen­ses existantes, ont été suspendues quelques mois avant que ne commence l'. Les barrières ter­restres ont été démontées, les charges qui minaient les ponts et les autres ouvrages d'art ont été en­levées et les mines anti-chars déterrées. Quant à la , bien plus per­fec­tionnée, elle a subi le même sort, alors que, depuis 1927, on n'avait cessé de la renforcer à grand renfort de béton armé. Et on ne s'est pas contenté de la démonter en enlevant, par exemple, toutes les pièces anti-chars: on a fait sauter et on a rasé la plupart des bun­kers qui la composaient. Ces démon­tages et ces destructions peuvent-ils être in­terprétés comme des mesures de défense? Le Maré­chal soviétique Koulikov disait en juin 1941: .

 

Les dix corps aéroportés de Staline

 

Bon nombre d'autres mesures prises par les Soviétiques ne sauraient être interprétées com­me relevant de la défense du territoire. Par exemple, la mise sur pied de dix corps aéroportés. Les troupes aéroportées sont des unités destinées à l'offensive. Entraîner et équiper des unités aéroportées coûtent des sommes astronomiques; pour cette raison bud­gétaire, les Etats belligérants, en géné­ral, évitent d'en constituer, ne fût-ce qu'un seul. L'Allemagne ne l'a pas fait, alors que la guerre contre l'Angleterre le postulait. Sta­line, pour sa part, en a mis dix sur pied d'un coup! Un million d'hommes, avec tous leurs équipements, comprenant des chars aéroportables et des pièces d'artillerie lé­gères. Au printemps de l'année 1941, l'in­dus­trie soviétique, dirigée depuis sa cen­trale moscovite, ordonna la production en masse des planeurs porteurs destinés au transport de ces troupes. Des milliers de ces machines sont sorties d'usine. Staline, à l'évidence, comp­tait s'en servir pendant l'été 1941, car rien n'avait été prévu pour les en­treposer. Or, ces planeurs n'auraient pas pu résister à un seul hiver russe à la belle étoile.

 

Ensuite, depuis la fin des années 30, l'in­dustrie de guerre soviétique produisait des milliers d'exemplaires du char BT: des blin­dés de combat capables d'atteindre des vites­ses surprenantes pour l'époque et dont le ra­yon d'action était impressionnant; ces chars avaient des chenilles amovibles, de fa­çon à ce que leur mobilité sur autoroutes soit en­co­re accentuée. Ces chars n'avaient au­cune utilité pour la défense du territoire.

 

En revanche, pour l'attaque, ils étaient i­déaux; en juillet 1940, l'état-major sovié­tique amorce la mise sur pied de dix armées d'a­vant-garde, baptisées  pour tromper les services de rensei­gnements étrangers. A ce sujet, on peut lire dans l'En­cyclopédie militaire soviétique:  (vol. 1, p. 256). Il s'agissait d'armées disposant de mas­ses de blindés, en règle gé­nérale, de un ou de deux corps dotés chacun de 500 chars, dont les attaques visait une pé­nétration en profondeur du territoire en­nemi.

 

Les préparatifs offensifs de l'Armée rouge peu­vent s'illustrer par de nombreux indices encore: comme par exemple le transport vers la frontière occidentale de l'URSS de gran­des quantités de matériels de génie pré­voyant la construction de ponts et de voies fer­rées. Les intentions soviétiques ne pou­vaient être plus claires.

 

Hitler prend Staline de vitesse

 

C'est sans doute vers le 13 juin que l'état-ma­jor général soviétique a commencé à met­tre en branle son 1er échelon straté­gique, donc à démarrer le processus de l'offensive. L'organisation de ce transfert du 1er échelon stratégique a constitué une opé­ration gi­gan­tesque. Officiellement, il s'agissait de ma­nœuvres d'été. A l'arrière, le 2ième échelon stratégique avait com­mencé à se former, dont la mission aurait été de prendre d'as­saut les lignes de défense allemandes, pour le cas (envisagé comme peu probable) où el­les auraient tenus bon face à la première vague.

 

Mais le calcul de Staline a été faux. Hitler s'est décidé plus tôt que prévu à passer à l'action. Il a précédé son adversaire de deux semaines. Côté soviétique, la dernière phase du déploiement du 1er échelon (trois mil­lions d'hommes) s'était déroulée avec la pré­cision d'une horloge. Mais au cours de ce déploiement, cette gigantesque armée était très vulnérable. Le matin du 22 juin, l'of­fen­sive allemande a frappé au cœur de cette su­perbe mécanique et l'a fracassée.

 

A ce moment, de puissantes forces sovié­tiques se sont déjà portées dans les balcons territoriaux en saillie de la frontière occiden­tale, notamment dans les régions de Bia­lystok et de Lemberg (Lvov). Les Allemands les ont encerclées, les ont forcées à se ras­sembler dans des secteurs exigus et les y ont détruites. Et ils ont détruit égale­ment d'é­nor­mes quantités de carburant et de munitions que les trains soviétiques avaient acheminés vers le front le matin même.

 

Staline jette ses inépuisables réserves dans la balance

 

Le désastre soviétique était presque parfait. Presque, pas entièrement. Les pertes étaient certes énormes mais les réserves étaient en­core plus énormes. De juillet à décembre 1941, l'Union Soviétique a réussi à remettre sur pied 200 importantes unités, dont les ef­fectifs équivalaient à ceux d'une division. La Wehrmacht n'a pas su en venir à bout. Pen­dant l'hiver, devant Moscou, l'Allemagne a perdu sa campagne de Russie. A partir de ce moment-là, la Wehrmacht n'a plus livré que des combats désespérés contre l'Armée Rou­ge, avec un acharnement aussi fou qu'inu­tile, tant l'adversaire était numériquement supé­rieur, et compensait ses pertes en maté­riel par les livraisons américaines.

 

Voici, en grandes lignes, les faits présents le 22 juin 1941. L'histoire des préliminaires de cette campagne de Russie, la question de sa­voir à quelle date précise les Allemands et les Soviétiques avaient décidé d'attaquer, res­tent matières à interprétation, d'autant plus que d'importantes quantités d'archives allemandes sont toujours inaccessibles, aux mains des vainqueurs, et que les archives soviétiques ne peuvent toujours pas être con­sultées par les chercheurs. La raison de ces secrets n'est pas difficile à deviner...

 

Joachim F. WEBER.

(texte issu de Criticón, Nr. 125, Mai/Juni 1991; adresse de la revue: Knöbelstrasse 36/0, D-8000 München 22).   

 

 

Un tabou de l'histoire contemporaine: l'attaque allemande contre l'Union Soviétique en juin 1941

Archives de Synergies Européennes - 1992

 

Un tabou de l'histoire contemporaine: l'attaque allemande contre l'Union Soviétique en juin 1941

 

 

par le Generalleutnant Dr. Franz UHLE-WETTLER

ancien Commandeur du NATO Defence College de Rome

 

Le 22 juin de cette année, il y avait tout juste cinquante ans que la Wehrmacht était entrée en Russie. Notre époque se caractérisant par un engouement pour les dates-anniver­sai­res, médias et politiciens ont eu l'occasion de se manifester et de faire du tapage. Mais on savait d'avance ce qu'ils allaient nous dire. Ils nous ont rappelé que l'Allemagne, pen­dant la seconde guerre mondiale, avait utili­sé des méthodes criminelles (l'ordre de dé­clen­cher l'Opération Barbarossa) et con­cocté des desseins tout aussi criminels (le Plan de la réorganisation politique et éco­nomique des territoires de l'Est). Et que c'est pour pro­mou­voir ces méthodes et réaliser ces des­seins que les Allemands ont com­battu. Avec des reproches dans la voix, avec des trémolos de honte, on nous a remémoré que toutes les institutions politiques, y com­pris la Wehr­macht, ont participé à ces crimes. Plus d'un donneur de leçons est venu à nous, la mine docte, pour nous dire qu'il fallait briser les ta­bous et laisser la vé­rité se manifester.

 

Mais il y a plus intéressant que ces sempi­ternelles répétitions de ce que nous savons déjà: précisément ce que ces briseurs de ta­bous veulent ériger comme tabous, les révé­lations qu'ils considèrent comme sacrilèges et qu'ils dénoncent comme telles. L'heb­do­ma­daire Die Zeit,  notamment, s'est spécia­li­sé dans ce genre d'entourloupettes. En 1988, quand les toutes premières voix se sont éle­vées pour dire que l'attaque alle­mande de juin 1941 n'était peut-être pas une attaque dé­libérée, perpétrée sans qu'il n'y ait eu, de la part de l'adversaire, la moindre pro­vo­ca­tion, Die Zeit  répondit par deux longs ar­ticles morigénateurs, dont le titre et les sous-titres en disaient assez sur leur contenu et leur style: «Les mensonges qui justifient la thè­se de l'attaque défensive  - Pourquoi on ré­ac­tive la fable de la guerre préventive dé­clen­chée par l'Allemagne». Bref: le ton d'une inquisition moderne.

 

Bien sûr, Staline voulait la paix

et Hitler, la guerre

 

Souvenons-nous toujours que les médias et les politiciens ne traitent des causes de la guerre qu'au départ de catégories morali­santes: on parle de culpabilité dans le dé­clen­chement de la guerre, de Kriegs-’Schuld’.  Or la guerre est un fait de monde qui échappe précisément aux catégories de la morale. Mieux qui ne peut nullement s'ap­préhender par les catégories de la mo­ra­le. Si Hitler avait acquis plus rapidement la victoire à l'Ouest ou si, au moins, il était parvenu à une paix provisoire avec l'Angle­terre, il aurait pu, s'il en avait eu en­vie, tour­ner tout son potentiel contre la Russie. Staline aurait été livré à son bon vouloir. Donc Staline ne pouvait pas, sans réagir, laisser évoluer la situation de la sorte. Il devait en conséquence attaquer l'Allemagne tant que celle-ci affrontait en­core l'Angle­ter­re (derrière laquelle se profi­laient depuis un certain temps déjà les Etats-Unis). Staline a dû opté pour cette solution par contrainte. Et cette option n'a rien à voir avec une quelcon­que notion morale de «faute», de «culpa­bi­li­té»; elle a été dictée par la volonté de Staline de survivre.

 

Examinons les choses de l'autre bord: la con­trainte que Staline allait inévitablement subir, Hitler ne pouvait pas ne pas la devi­ner. Par conséquent, Hitler était contraint à son tour d'élaborer des plans pour abattre la puissance de Staline, avant que celui-ci ne passe à l'attaque. Et quand, dans une situa­tion pareille, si explosive et si complexe, l'é­tat-major allemand assure Hitler que la Rus­sie peut être battue en quelques mois, plus rien ne pouvait arrêter le Führer. Pro­cessus décisionnaire qui n'a rien à voir non plus avec la notion de «faute», mais dé­coule plus simplement de la position géogra­phique occupée par l'Allemagne. Oser poser au­jour­d'hui de telles réflexions réalistes, non mo­rales: voilà qui est tabou.

 

Mais il y a encore plus étonnant: par exem­ple, ce que nos destructeurs de tabous ra­con­tent sur les intentions de Staline en 1940/41. Les documents soviétiques ne sont toujours pas accessibles. Pourtant, nos bri­seurs de ta­bous savent parfaitement bien ce que voulait Staline. Et il voulait la paix. Evidemment. Donc, l'attaque allemande était délibérée, in­justifiée. Scélérate. Comme sont des scélé­rats ceux qui osent émettre d'autres hypo­thè­ses sur la question. Des scélérats et des men­teurs. Des menteurs qui cultivent de mau­vaises intentions. Voilà comment on défend des tabous.

 

Pourtant Karl Marx déjà nous avait ensei­gné que les Etats socialistes devaient se pré­parer pour la guerre finale contre les capita­listes. Staline  —on sait qu'il ne s'encom­brait pas de scrupules inutiles—  avait choisi de provoquer cette lutte finale par l'offensive. Et il l'avait planifiée jusqu'au plus insigni­fiant détail. Depuis 1930, tous les nouveaux wagons des chemins de fer sovié­tiques, épine dorsale de la logistique des ar­mées moder­nes (encore de nos jours), de­vaient être cons­truits de façon à pouvoir pas­ser rapidement du grand écartement russe au petit écarte­ment européen. Préconise-t-on de telles me­su­res quand on n'envisage que la défensive? De plus, Staline avait mis sur pied une ar­mée gigantesque. On pourrait arguer que c'était pour se défendre; mais les chars et les unités aéroportées y jouaient un rôle prépon­dérant. Par conséquent, cette im­mense ar­mée avait bel et bien été conçue pour une guerre offensive.

 

Comparons quelques chiffres pour donner une idée de la puissance soviétique en ma­tière de blindés; en 1941, la Wehrmacht pos­sédait 3700 chars capables d'engager le com­bat, c'est-à-dire des chars qui ont au moins un canon de 37 mm. Elle disposait en plus de 2030 engins chenillés ou sur roues armés de mitrailleuses ou de canons de 20 mm. Elle a attaqué la Russie avec 2624 chars et 1024 en­gins armés de mitrailleuses ou de canons légers de 20 mm (types Panzer I ou Panzer II). C'était tout! Face à elle, l'Armée Rouge alignait entre 22.000 et 24.000 chars de com­bat, presque tous armés de canons de 45 mm ou plus. Parmi ces chars, on trouvait déjà 1861 chars des types KV et T34, qui étaient invulnérables face à presque tous les chars allemands de l'époque. L'arme blindée sovié­tique, à elle seule, était plus puissante que toutes les autres forces blindées du monde! La supériorité soviétique en matières de ca­nons et de mortiers était plus impression­nante encore. Quant aux escadrilles aé­rien­nes, le rapport des forces était également dé­fa­vorable aux Allemands: le 22 juin 1941, les unités allemandes envoyées au front russe disposaient de 2703 avions de combat; leurs adversaires soviétiques en avaient de 8000 à 9000, pour protéger des unités bien plus im­portantes encore, massées dans l'arrière-pays.

 

Les Soviétiques disposaient en tout état de cause d'une puissance militaire capable de passer à l'offensive. Et l'URSS avait des rai­sons de s'en servir. Mais que voulait Staline?

 

Déjà, au début de l'été 1940, quand les Al­le­mands n'avaient plus que quatre divi­sions à l'Est, Staline avait massé près de cent di­visions le long de sa frontière occiden­tale. Personne ne saura jamais ce que Staline comptait en faire, au cas où l'attaque alle­mande contre la France se serait enlisée. A la veille de l'attaque allemande contre l'Est, Staline avait rassemblé 180 divisions dans ses districts militaires de l'Ouest. Elles ve­naient des régions les plus éloignées de l'em­pire soviétique: de la Transbaïkalie et du Caucase. A ces 180 divisions, s'ajoutaient en­core neuf nouveaux corps mécanisés (cha­cun doté de plus de 1000 chars) ainsi que dix nouveaux corps d'armée aéroportés, ce qui trahissait bien les intentions offensives du dictateur géorgien.

 

Bon nombre de ces divisions acheminées vers l'Ouest ont été cantonnées dans des bi­vouacs de forêt provisoires, où il s'avérait difficile de maintenir à long terme les acquis de l'instruction et la vigueur combattive des troupes. Pas une seule de ces unités ne s'est mise en position défensive. Si elles avaient construit des redoutes de campagne, installé des obstacles, posé des champs de mines, l'attaque allemande de juin 1941 aurait été bloquée net et neutralisée. Les généraux so­viétiques n'ont pas tenu leurs unités de chars en réserve pour une éventuelle contre-attaque mais les ont avancés le plus loin pos­sible vers l'Ouest, dans les saillies fronta­lières. Indice plus révélateur encore: les dé­pôts logistiques de pièces de rechange, de munitions, etc. se situaient dans la plupart des cas à l'avant, plus à l'Ouest, que les uni­tés de combat ou les escadrilles d'avions qui étaient censées s'ébranler les premières. Beau­coup de phénomènes apparamment mar­ginaux confirment la thèse de l'immi­nence d'une attaque soviétique. Citons-en un seul: lors de leur avance fulgu­rante, les troupes allemandes ont souvent découvert des stocks de cartes militaires soi­gneu­se­ment emballées. Ces paquets conte­naient des cartes de territoires allemands.

 

La thèse de l'attaque

délibérée ne tient plus

 

Que pouvons-nous prouver en avançant tous ces indices? Rien. Sinon que l'attaque du 22 juin 1941 n'était probablement pas une at­taque délibérée et injustifiée contre une URSS qui ne voulait que la paix. Staline avait tous les moyens qu'il fallait pour attaquer. Beaucoup d'indices prouvent qu'il avait éga­lement l'intention d'attaquer, comme Hitler l'a affirmé dans plusieurs conversations se­crètes et privées. Reste à savoir quand cette attaque soviétique se serait déclenchée. Quel­ques semaines plus tard? Au printemps de 1942? La décision allemande d'attaquer, la date du déclenchement des opérations, ont-elles été choisie parce que l'état-major alle­mand avait aperçu le danger d'une attaque soviétique imminente ou parce que les mou­vements des troupes soviétiques ont précipité le cours des événements ou ont-elles été choi­sies tout-à-fait indépendemment des ma­nœu­vres soviétiques? Voilà tout un jeu de questions encore sévèrement tabouisé. La «querelle des historiens», il y a quelques an­nées, l'a amplement démontré.

 

Quoi qu'il en soit: tout historien qui prétend aujourd'hui, en dépit de tous ces indices, que l'attaque allemande était entièrement injus­tifiée, qu'elle a été perpétrée sans qu'il n'y ait eu la moindre provocation soviétique, tout historien qui avance la thèse d'une attaque allemande délibérée et veut faire d'une telle thèse un axiome de vérité, ne pourra plus être pris au sérieux. La raison, le bon sens et le programme du premier semestre de toute licence en histoire nous enseignent la même chose: toute connaissance sûre quant aux motivations, aux intentions et aux objectifs ne peut être acquise qu'au départ de docu­ments internes. Or les documents sovié­ti­ques sont toujours inaccessibles.

 

Dr. Franz UHLE-WETTLER.

   

Novembre 1941: la perestroïka de Staline

 

Archives de SYNERGIES EUROPEENNES - Octobre 1988

Novembre 1941: la "Perestroïka" de Staline

par Wolfgang STRAUSS

Rudolf Augstein va-t-il faire mentir l'histoire? "Stra-tège de bistrot", "handicapé de l'argumentaire", "im-bécile", "masochiste", "accoucheur de monstruo-sités": ce sont quelques-uns des traits hardiment dé-cochés par l'ex-artilleur Augstein contre le plus grand spécialiste allemand de l'histoire contem-porai-ne avec Helmut Diwald. La cible de cette philippique n'est autre qu'Ernst Nolte, à cause de son ouvrage Der europäischer Bürgerkrieg, 1917-1945 - Natio-nal-sozialismus und Bolschewismus  (= La guerre ci-vile européenne, 1917-1945 - National-socialisme et bolchévisme, Berlin, Propyläen, 1987). Augstein trai-te en outre le livre de Nolte de "subversion de la science" (Der Spiegel,  n°1/1988). Or, que nous pro--pose donc l'auteur de cette bordée d'insultes? Rien moins q'un viol de l'histoire. Surtout à propos de Staline. Augstein fait un contre-sens total sur la po-litique et sur les motivations du "petit père des peu-ples".

Certes, concède-t-il, Staline "a assassiné à tour de bras", il "a fait tuer à l'intérieur plus de monde qu'Hitler" (sic), "20 millions de personnes rien qu'entre 1934 et 1938". Mais il y a des réalisations gran-dioses au palmarès du Géorgien: l'industria-li-sa-tion, le maintien de la cohésion de l'empire, la mise en place d'une "dictature pédagogique", l'éradica-tion de l'analphabétisme…

Staline a vaincu les Allemands parce qu'il a fait vibrer in extremis la fibre patriotique des Russes

Il va falloir dorénavant se passer des lumières his-toriques d'Augstein, qui n'est qu'un amateur, même s'il est fort lu. Le voilà qui affirme tout de go que le Géorgien a vaincu Hitler et "ses généraux nazis" parce que le "système stalinien" disposait d'un im-mense potentiel de défense "révolutionnaire", en clair: communiste. Rien n'est plus faux. Staline n'a réussi -in extremis- à mobiliser les forces patrio-ti-ques, c'est-à-dire nationales-russes, qu'au prix d'un reniement complet de ses postulats idéologiques fon-damentaux. En peu de temps, le bolchévik Staline mit en scène une véritable perestroïka spirituelle et morale, un renversement total de son système de ré-férence: finie l'eschatologie communiste-marxiste, fi-ni l'internationalisme prolétarien. Retour au mes-sia-nisme russe, celui de la Grande Guerre Patrioti-que et Nationaliste. Staline, une fois encore, était tiré d'affaire. Pour entrer dans l'histoire comme le plus grand des rénégats.

Moscou, 7 novembre 1941: revue des troupes sur la Place Rouge. "Le monde regarde votre force", lance le Géorgien à ses soldats russes. "Vous avez une  gran-de mission libératrice à accomplir. Soyez-en di-gnes. La guerre que vous menez est une guerre de li-bération, et c'est une guerre juste". Pas un mot sur Marx et Engels. La Révolution mondiale? Passée aux oubliettes. Staline proclame le nationalisme rus-se comme la seule force légitime de survie. "Battez-vous comme se sont battus vos grands ancêtres: Nev-ski, Donskoi, Minine, Pojarski, Souvorov et Kou-touzov!". En 1812, le maréchal Koutouzov alla re-joindre ses troupes devant Smolensk dans un con-cert de cloches et de chorales. Et le 2 août 1914, le Tsar Nicolas II s'était agenouillé pour prier l'icône miraculeuse de la Vierge de Kazan dans son Palais d'Hiver de Saint-Pétersbourg. De même, l'athée Sta-line, en invoquant des ancêtres à la fois patriotes et chrétiens, relie un passé glorieux, pré-bolchévique, à un présent apocalyptique.

Le 7 novembre 1941, les Saints et les Martyrs de la Russie sont remis à l'honneur. En ce jour anniver-sai-re de la Révolution, l'histoire russe reprend ses droits. La conscience historique des sujets de Staline re-devient subitement patriotique. L'internationale s'est tue, le Manifeste communiste  de Marx se cou-vre de poussière. La religion d'Etat redevient le na-tionalisme russe, aux racines mythiques et religieu-ses. En comparaion, la perestroika  culturelle d'un Gorbatchev est une aimable plaisanterie, à la fois su-perficielle et terne.

Les Russes percevaient les Allemands comme des libérateurs

C'est la dictature stalinienne elle-même, ce qu'Aug-stein appelle la "révolution socialiste", qui, en s'ef-fondrant par sa propre faute, à l'été 1941, a contraint Staline à recourir au nationalisme russe. L'heure du communisme soviétique avait sonné. "Beaucoup, au-jourd'hui, oublient (ou feignent d'oublier car cela cadre mal avec l'"antifascisme" ambiant)", écrit Carl Gustav Ströhm, Allemand des Pays Baltes et com-patriote de l'auteur de ces lignes, "que de larges frac-tions de la population soviétique ont accueilli les Allemands en libérateurs, que des centaines de mil-liers de soldats de l'Armée Rouge ont changé de camp, à l'été et à l'automne 1941, et que des mil-lions se sont laissés capturer, bien souvent sans op-po-ser grande résistance. Ce n'étaient pas seule-ment des Ukrainiens ou des Baltes qui, eux, avaient quel-ques raiosns de saluer l'arrivée des Allemands; il y avait aussi d'innombrables Russes. La terreur stali-nien-ne avait laissé de telles cicatrices (c'était quel-ques années seulement après la collectivisation forcée et sanglante des terres) que de nombreux Russes étaient prêts à collaborer avec l'ennemi extérieur" (Die Welt,  26 septembre 1987).

Octobre 1941: les semaines les plus dures pour l'U-nion Soviétique. Au Kremlin, c'est une atmosphère de fin de règne. Staline, "l'homme d'acier", le "so-leil du prolétariat mondial", connait les affres du dé-clin. Le 3 octobre, il a dicté quelques lettres où il qué-mandait l'aide de Roosevelt et de Churchill. Puis il s'est tu jusqu'au début novembre. Le Premier Mi-nis-tre anglais et le Président américain lui écrivent, mais Staline ne répond plus. Smolensk est aux mains des Allemands. Kiev aussi, ainsi que l'Ukrai-ne centrale. Une douzaine d'armée, soit plus de six cent mille soldats de l'Armée Rouge, sont hors de combat. Le cœur industriel du Sud est perdu.

Staline demande aux Anglais de débarquer en Russie

Dans une lettre du 13 septembre, alors même que se re-ferme l'étau sur Kiev, Staline demande à Churchill de faire débarquer à Archangelsk, sans grand risque, 20 à 25 divisions britanniques, ou bien de les faire transiter par la Perse vers les territoires asiatiques de l'URSS "afin qu'elles combattent aux côtés des trou-pes soviétiques, sur le sol soviétique, comme el-les le firent au cours de l'autre guerre sur le sol fran-çais". Faut-il que le successeur de Lénine ait été aux abois pour mendier ainsi l'intervention de troupes que la jeune Armée Rouge de Lénine avait victorieu-se-ment affrontées lors des combats de 1918 à 1921! Mais l'Anglais refuse, faisant observer que les Etats-Unis d'Amérique vont entrer en guerre sous peu.

A Moscou, c'est la paralysie. Le moral n'y est plus. La confiance des sujets s'évanouit. Quand ils ne vont pas à la rencontre de l'envahisseur, bannières dé-ployées, ils lui offrent le pain et le sel. Par mil-lions! Et pas seulement les ethnies traditionnellement "peu sûres": Ukrainiens, Lithuaniens, Estoniens, Let-tons. On trouve parmi eux des Russes, des Bié-lo-russes des territoires occupés! Le 13 octobre, Ka-louga tombe, à 160 km au Sud-ouest de Moscou. C'était le pivot de la première ligne de défense avan-cée devant Moscou. Le 14, Borodino est dépassé. C'est à 100 km à peine de Moscou. L'endroit est his-torique, sacré: n'est-ce pas là qu'au siècle der-nier, la Grande Armée de Napoléon a frisé la dérou-te? C'est là que Staline voudrait stopper ce deuxième envahisseur venu de l'Ouest. En vain. La 32ème di-vi-sion sibérienne, division d'élite, meurt sur les hau-teurs de Borodino. C'était l'ultime espoir. Les Pan-zers de la 10ème division blindée allemande défilent devant le monument aux morts de Borodino et s'en-foncent dans les espaces enneigés jusqu'à la Mosco-va. Le verrou du dernier bunker saute. Le 19 octobre, Mojaïsk tombe. Or, la Chaussée de Mojaïsk con--duit tout droit dans la métropole de Staline. Plus que 100 km d'autoroute! "Mojaïsk est tombé, entend-on crier dans les rues de Moscou. Mojaïsk est perdu, les Allemands arrivent!".

Les Allemands n'atteignent pas Moscou, les Russes se sont ressaisis

Cinq jours auparavant, le 15 octobre, Molotov, Mi-nistre des Affaires Etrangères avait reçu Steinhardt, l'ambassadeur américain, pour lui annoncer que le Gou-vernement soviétique quitterait Moscou et que le corps diplomatique se replierait sur Kouibichev, à 850 km à l'Est. Lorsque la nouvelle fut connue, et lors-qu'on apprit que le tombeau de Lénine serait ex-trait de son Mausolée, ce fut la panique dans Mos-cou: "les Fritz arrivent".

Ce qui s'est passé alors, aucun livre d'histoire so-vié-tique ne l'a jamais raconté, alors même que des té-moins de cette époque sont encore en vie. Car à Mos-cou ce n'est pas seulement dans la crainte que l'on attend les "Fritz": certains Moscovites souhaitent leur venue.

"Les occupants des immeubles de la Chaussée de Mojaïsk tendent l'oreille au moindre bruit de che-nilles. Sont-ils déjà là? Pendant ces journées, tout reste possible à Moscou… Les nouvelles alarmistes se succèdent dans la ville… Le gouvernement a fui… Le pouvoir de Staline chancelle. Son portrait mê-me est décroché des murs; les premières cartes du Parti se consument. Des tracts simples, qu'on devi-ne confectionnées à la hâte, apparaissent soudain, au petit matin, dans les boîtes aux lettres: "Mort aux com-munistes!"… Le cœur de l'Union s'arrête. Tout le fanatisme du Parti, tous les tribunaux d'exception, toutes les exécutions ne peuvent, en cette fin d'oc-tobre, endiguer la décomposition de la ville. Les do-miciles des personnalités évacuées sont pillés. Des déserteurs s'y installent. Des blessés, des enfants, des jeunes gens échappés des équipes de travail, rô-dent çà et là. Moscou semble agoniser…".

Le témoignage de Mandel Mann

Ces lignes incroyables et pourtant si vraies, sont ex-traites des mémoires d'un instituteur de village, d'o-ri-gine juive polonaise, émigré en Russie en 1939. Le livre de Mandel Mann Aux portes de Moscou  parut d'abord en Israël avant d'être traduit dans presque tou-tes les langues et publié en Allemagne aux édi-tions Heinrich Scheffler de Francfort en 1961. Man-del Mann se souvient avoir assisté à certaines scènes:

"Une patrouille de six hommes en armes, trois de la Mi-lice et trois du NKWD, s'arrête devant une porte-cochère puis se replie lentement dans la rue Sadovaïa où elle disparaît dans l'entrée obscure d'une maison. Au bout d'un moment, les six hommes réapparais-sent, tête nue et sans armes. Sur leurs capotes mili-taires, les insignes de miliciens ont disparu"… "Les rats quittent le navire", leur lance une femme. "Ils peu-vent toujours courir, on les rattrapera! "…

Lentement, la foule forme un cortège; en tête, mar-chent les blessés, suivis des femmes et de tous les au-tres. Des rues adjacentes surgissent des gamins de quatorze ou quinze ans qui travaillaient jusqu'alors en usine. "Mort aux communistes!" hurle le porte-dra-peau. "La guerre est finie!", "Grâce te soit ren-due, Sainte Vierge, Mère de Dieu!".

Mais les "Fritz" ne vinrent pas. Où étaient-ils donc pas-sés? Ils avaient pourtant emprunté les autoroutes et les chaussées de la périphérie moscovite! A une heure de route à peine de la capitale!…

La victoire du général Hiver

Deux semaines plus tard, le 5 décembre. Un froid arc-tique a ralenti l'avance allemande. Des éléments de choc des 3ème et 4ème Armées blindées forment l'aile gauche du groupe d'armées Centre, décrivant un vaste arc de cercle au Nord et au Nord-Ouest de Moscou. Dans les faubourgs de Gorki, de Katiouch-ki, de Krassnaïa Poliana, les hommes de la 2ème Pan-zerdivision viennoise grelottent par 40° au-des-sous de zéro, à 16 km à peine des tours du Kremlin. A la lunette binoculaire, les chefs de régiments peu-vent observer la vie dans les rues de Moscou. Mais c'est un Moscou où, depuis le 7 novembre, le vent d'hi-ver a tourné, où souffle un nouvel esprit de ré-sis-tance qui puise sa force et son intransigeance dans le tréfonds immémorial du nationalisme russe. En un seul discours prononcé sur la Place Rouge enneigée, que les Allemands paraissent avoir oublié et que les historiens occidentaux ne commentent guère (car ils sont incapables de l'expliquer), Staline rendit à la na-tion russe son histoire, sa fierté et son identité à un moment historique où cette nation, ne pouvait plus croire qu'en des miracles. Des avions sovié-ti-ques largueront derrière les lignes allemandes des tracts reproduisant le texte du discours du 7 no-vem-bre, afin que les populations occupées sachent ce qui se passait à Moscou: une perestroika  de l'esprit et du cœur…

D'un point de vue "antifasciste", Staline fut un rénégat, un capitulard idéologique, un déviationniste. C'est vrai: Staline a heurté de front les vaches sa-crées de l'internationalisme marxiste-léniniste et trotz-kiste. Mais l'Histoire, elle, est du côté des vain-queurs, pas des gourous idéologiques. En réhabili-tant le nationalisme russe, en le sanctifiant et en l'é-levant au rang de religion d'Etat, Staline a sauvé l'em-pire. La Grande Guerre Patriotique —l'expres-sion évoque à dessein une autre "Guerre Patrio-ti-que", celle de 1812-1813— ne fut pas menée au nom de Karl Marx.

Augstein se trompe. Le potentiel révolutionnaire a sur-gi du nationalisme, pas du communisme. Du point de vue de la vulgate "antifasciste", Staline a réveillé et mobilisé précisément ces forces, valeurs, attitudes et idéaux "irrationnels" qu'un Jürgen Ha-ber-mas considère comme des "phénomènes préfascistes": conscience et fierté nationales, foi et fidélité, abnégation, esprit de sacrifice, amour du peuple et de la patrie, sentiment d'être prédestiné, et d'être uni-que au monde…

Wolfang STRAUSS.

(texte issu de Nation Europa, n°3/1988; traduction française: Jean-Louis Pesteil).