Agis IV, Sparta’s great reformer king

Agis IV, Sparta’s great reformer king

by Ray Wilson

Ex: http://www.ridingthetiger.org

All great cultures and nations that have arisen, and all those who are to come will one day decline and pass into history. This cyclical understanding is near universal. Societies do not decline however, entirely without an awareness of their decline. Like any organism that is sickly or wounded, society will show the symptoms of its decay, sometimes before it is too late and the course is not irreversible. History has given us many examples of men who, like canaries in a mine, warned of impending danger oftentimes losing their lives in the process. One of the finest examples is that of Agis IV, the Agiad king of Sparta. But first, a few remarks are necessary on the Spartan constitution and government before his time.

The Spartan constitution is perhaps one of the most unique in history. The Spartan state was for some time indistinguishable from the rest of the Greek poleis; its unique constitution was eventually decreed under one of the legendary sages of Greece, Lycurgus. Lycurgus aimed to make Sparta a militarized society that valued discipline, order and a strict hierarchy. The Spartan citizens were a warrior class able to form up at a moments notice to meet any threats. Spartans were known for their disdain for material wealth, their military prowess, and their system of a dual monarchy. Two kingly houses, the Argiad and the Eurypontid, traced their ancestry back to Hercules ruled Sparta for the length of its independent history, and were supported by five ephors, elected officials who were only permitted to remain in power for a year. Below these were a council of elders and a popular assembly. Sparta followed a strict hierarchy, only Spartan youths and a select few free men and helots were permitted to citizenship, and to be a Spartan meant to swear off trades or engage in any work outside of martial training and warfare, or travel outside of Sparta, unless on campaign or specifically permitted. The men were required to dine together from their adulthood to around their sixtieth year. Agricultural work, trade and craftsmanship were all done by either helots, the lowest class in the Spartan state, or perioeci, freemen without the privileges of citizenship. Despite its harsh nature, Spartan society proved resilient and Sparta remained one of the dominant states in Greece until the time of Alexander. Spartan soldiery enjoyed a reputation of near invincibility for most of this period, and even after its decline Spartans were highly prized as mercenaries.

Aristotle criticized the Spartan constitution in his Politics, writing that while it was suitable in war, it did not prepare Spartans to live in peace, and thus the very success of Sparta against Athens led to its ruin, through the influx of material wealth from its defeated foe. With no understanding of enjoying luxury in moderation, Sparta sunk into decadence. Its population had fallen perilously low, and the pool of citizens was shrinking to the point where only seven hundred families were considered Spartan, and of these only one hundred remained that possessed land. This was partially on account of a on the change in inheritance law, where before it would go to the son, after it could go to whomever one desired.

Agis was born into the wealthiest of the Spartan families and lived his early life in the luxury which Spartans had grown accustomed too, but was raised with a respect for Sparta’s great history, and its old ways which he resolved, before the age of 20 to adopt. He forsook the luxurious habits of his peers and donned the coarse cloak of the Spartans of old, and sought in every way to live by the laws of Lycurgus. He had his opportunity when he succeeded his father on the throne in 245 BC.

Those most opposed to Agis IV reforms were the older, established men who were used to their comfort and luxury and, to quote Plutarch,

“The young men, as he found, quickly and beyond his expectations gave ear to him, and stripped themselves for the contest in behalf of virtue, like him casting aside their old ways of living as worn-out garments in order to attain liberty. But most of the older men, since they were now far gone in corruption, feared and shuddered at the name of Lycurgus as if they had run away from their master and were being led back to him, and they upbraided Agis for bewailing the present state of affairs and yearning after the ancient dignity of Sparta..”

Spartan women also tended to oppose his moves, as Spartan society gave them a unique control over the affairs of family estates, and thus, the riches of the family. They enlisted Leonidas II, the co king to their cause. Leonidas was himself given to luxury even beyond the rest, having been raised in the Seleucid court. He needed very little persuading in the matter and opposed Agis’ motions on the grounds of the disorder they would cause. Agis had key supporters, however, in his mother and grandmother, along with his uncle Agesilaus, and the ephor Lysander. With their assistance, he presented a motion to the council of elders calling for drastic reforms to bring Sparta back in accordance with the laws of Lycurgus, including a cancellation of all debts, redistribution of land into equal parts among the Spartans with the rest going to free men, the elevating of more of the free men to citizenship class to alleviate their dangerously low numbers. Agis IV gained even more fervent support when he vowed to redistribute and part with his own lands and wealth first and foremost, with his family doing the same. He managed to banish Leonidas on the grounds of both his foreign upbringing and foreign wife, both strictly forbidden by the laws of Lycurgus, and be replaced with his son in law, Cleombrotus, a man far more amendable to Agis’ aims.  Some in his camp around his uncle were eager to see Leonidas killed, but Agis, discovering this sent men to guard and escort Leonidas to safety. A more cunning, less morally scrupulous man than Agis would have no doubt allowed the conspirators to kill Leonidas, and be rid of a dangerous rival. This mercy would later contribute to his undoing.

With the removal of Leonidas and the support of ephors, he pushed through his reforms until being summoned to war as part of his alliance with Aratas and the Achaean League. He collected an army and departed, eager to take an opportunity to display the reinvigorated spirit of Sparta.  His men, it is said eagerly marched behind the young king, and were marveled at by their allies for their discipline, order, and cheery disposition. While ultimately the campaign ended before any major engagement, Agis IV did Sparta no dishonor in this, fulfilling what was required of him by treaty and winning the respect of Aratas his fellow commander. Unfortunately, during his time away, he left the affairs of state in the hands of Agesilaus. While Agesilaus was a well regarded man, he had ulterior motives for supporting his nephew’s reforms; he had incurred significant debts that the reforms the king was pushing through would cancel out. He endeavored to push for the debt cancellation but delay the redistribution of land with the argument that the reforms should be carried out at a gradual pace, but once the first part was enacted, continually stalled on the second. This caused much chaos and disorder and left the Spartans yearning even for a return of Leonidas. At the same time, Lysander and Mandrocleides’ terms of office as ephors expired, and the new ephors were opposed to Agis’ designs.  Leonidas was able to return unopposed with mercenaries at his back. Agis and Cleombrotus sensed the danger and fled to sanctuaries of Athena and Poseidon respectively. Leonidas wasted no time deposing his son in law, exiling him rather than executing him at the behest of his daughter, leaving only Agis to deal with. Agis was protected for a time by some companions, who would escort him from the sanctuary to the public baths. This continued until these same companions persuaded by one Amphares, under pressure from Leonidas, betrayed him and dragged him to prison.

From his cell, Agis was ordered to defend himself and accused of bring disorder into Sparta.  Agis refused to denounce his conduct, insisting that he had acted of his own volition, with Lycurgus as his only inspiration. He stated that though he suffer the most severe punishment, he would not be made to renounce so noble an idea. He was sentenced to death accordingly, though those sent to execute him were reluctant to do so, for to spill the blood of a king and a man of such nature was a dishonor even to Leonidas’ hirelings.  One Damochares stepped forward for Leonidas and the ephors were eager that he be dispatched with haste as people had gathered by the prison, including Agis’ mother and grandmother demanding he be tried before the people, rather than Leonidas’ selected men.

Agis was thus led to the execution chamber, and, according to Plutarch;

“saw one of the officers shedding tears of sympathy for him. “My man,” said he, “cease weeping; for even though I am put to death in this lawless and unjust manner, I have the better of my murderers.” And saying these words, he offered his neck to the noose without hesitation.”

With this, Agis was executed via strangulation. His mother and grandmother were executed at the same spot after; both faced their end with bravery. Before her death, his mother is said to have uttered: “My son, it was thy too great regard for others, and thy gentleness and humanity, which has brought thee to ruin, us as well.”  Though Agis had failed, all was not lost to Sparta. Leonidas arranged for his widow to marry his son Cleomenes. Despite the circusmtances, the two developed mutual affection and the young Cleomenes was deeply impressed by Agis’ project. Upon taking the throne he enacted reforms himself, and led a resurgent Sparta against its enemies, becoming the last great king of Sparta.

Agis’s kingship only lasted four brief years yet he inspired one of his successor kings, Plutarch and countless others in later generations. Our interest in him comes from his embodiment of the ideal qualities of a true king. He wished to reform Spartan society and to bring it back into accordance with the laws of its illustrious past. His land reforms, redistribution and debt cancellation in other hands could have been seen as simply cheap populism meant to gain support and power. What separates Agis from a populist demagogue was his sincere desire to elevate Sparta spiritually. He wished to shake off its decadence and revive its old love of discipline, order and disdain for material gain. Sparta’s economic condition was of secondary importance. While his reforms would certainly have greatly improved the lot for its citizens and freemen, what was more important was they would restore Sparta’s honor and ensure its viability as a state long after his death.  He was more than happy to sacrifice wealth and even his life for this goal, when he could have at any point ceased or compromised. In his personal conduct as well he showed nobility to a fault- never resorting to foul means or dishonorable acts to see his plans through. Even at his end, Plutarch seems to imply the ephors gave him the opportunity to pass the blame to his uncle Agesilaus or the ephor Lysander for the chaotic state of affairs. He took full responsibility rather than speak against either man. He could have been forgiven for betraying Agesilaus to Leonidas, considering how much of the blame for his ruin rested on the shoulders of that man, yet he refused to do so, such was his character. If there were any faults in the man, it was naivety and good nature, and these can hardly be called faults.

El país más ruidoso...

El país más ruidoso...

por Ernesto Milá 

Ex: http://infokrisis.blogia.com  

Info-krisis.- España es un país ruidoso. Es más, es el país más ruidoso del mundo. No solamente la modernidad genera ruidos mecánicos más allá del umbral de lo tolerable, sino que la sociedad española es la más ruidosa de todo el globo. El ruido es tan abominable como el silencio es el caldo de cultivo de todo aquello de lo que la humanidad puede estar orgullosa. Las civilizaciones tradicionales han sido civilizaciones del silencio y de la serenidad. Se cultivaba el silencio porque se intentaba que cada cual fuera él mismo. Si hoy, en nuestra España bulle la más ruidosa de todas las sociedades es porque ocupamos un lugar avanzado en la degradación de las costumbres y en los procesos de desintegración social. No es, precisamente, como para estar orgullosos, pero así están las cosas… Vale la pena reflexionar sobre ello.

¿Somos el país más ruidoso del mundo? El 24 de abril de 2013 el diario ABC publicada una pequeña noticia acompañada de vídeo en el que respondía a esta cuestión: No, no somos el país más ruidoso del mundo (http://www.abc.es/videos-espana/20130424/espana-segundo-pais-ruidoso-2324696589001.html), el título corresponde al Japón, nosotros nos debemos contentar con una discreta segunda plaza. La noticia venía a cuento de que los inspectores de GAES (empresa dedicada a la venta de prótesis auditivas) habían recorrido las calles de Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao y Sevilla para concienciar a la población sobre los altos niveles de ruido y cómo pueden afectar a la salud. Era el Día Mundial contra el Ruido. Durante la jornada se detectaron en España sonidos muy por encima de los niveles recomendados por la OMS. El óptimo son 65 decibelios; lo registrado en España estaba siempre muy por encima. Estos estudios de la OMS situaban a España en segundo lugar como país ruidoso, tras el Japón. Pues bien, no. Creo que podemos reivindicar el primer puesto.

España: la sociedad más ruidosa del mundo

La OMS mide los ruidos registrados en las calles a causa de elementos mecánicos, habitualmente vehículos, obras y sonidos derivados de la vida ciudadano. Pero eso no son todos los ruidos. La misma sociedad los genera: y la sociedad somos cada uno de nosotros. Los japoneses, educados en las tradiciones del Zen y del Shinto, “sufren” el ruido y lo superan precisamente por ese tipo de educación que interioriza la vida y la vuelve ajena al exterior. Ellos mismos, ni se expresan a gritos, ni viven dando gritos, sino todo lo contrario. Incluso cuando sufren los mayores dolores y desgracias personales y colectivas, están obligados a mostrar un rostro inexpresivo y a eliminar sus lamentos. La modernidad ha hecho del Japón un país ruidoso, pero los japoneses, en cambio, no lo son. De ahí que España vaya muy delante y puede reivindicar el dudoso honor de “país más ruidoso del mundo”.

En efecto, aquí no solamente la sociedad genera los ruidos propios de la modernidad, sino que el español tiene a gala ser gritón desde el momento mismo de nacer. He viajado en los últimos tres años por docena y media de países. Estoy muy sensibilizado por el ruido y puedo asegurar que la sociedad española es, con mucho la más ruidosa de entre todos esos lugares. Da la sensación de que se ha producido un “efecto llamada” para gentes ruidosas de todo el mundo que han convergido en España, “paraíso del ruido” y de la inhibición del Estado, de las Comunidades Autónomas y de los Ayuntamientos.

En el extranjero es diferente…

En Praga tuve una epifanía: estaba sentado en una céntrica cafetería y, justo al lado, tenía una mesa con cuatro niños de, más o menos, 13 años. Hablaban. Eso era lo sorprendente para un observador español: ni jugaban con videojuegos, ni aporreaban sus móviles, ni siquiera gritaban. Hablaban. Fue en ese momento cuando me di cuenta de que en España desde hacía mucho tiempo no había visto a cuatro niños de esa edad, sentados en torno a una mesa, serenos y cambiando impresiones en torno a una merienda.

A partir de ahí me he ido fijando en la reacción de los niños de todo el mundo y en su comportamiento habitual: solamente en España parecen rabiosos, gritan constantemente y da incluso la sensación de que si sus padres no les oyen gritar tienden a creer que están enfermos. Porque, lo normal es que los padres hayan dejado de preocuparse de que sus hijos jueguen y convivan dando alaridos. Cada vez más, el lenguaje de los niños españoles está dejando de ser un lenguaje hablado para ser un conjunto de gritos, onomatopeyas y sonidos que oscilan entre el alarido y el gruñido. Nada parecido a los niños canadienses, a los niños portugueses, a los niños serbios, a los niños malteses, a los niños neozelandeses, a los niños sardos y así sucesivamente. Hemos logrado que la próxima generación no solamente no sepa escribir y que colocar todas las letras en una palabras sea algo inútil y cansino, sino que tampoco sepa hablar y que los gritos y las onomatopeyas sustituyan, como en los mensajes SMS, a las palabras.

Y esto es preocupante, porque indica el grado de decadencia de nuestra sociedad. Observad a las gentes en los transportes públicos: estaba ayer en un tren abarrotado cuando veo a una niña de color de no más de 16 meses en su carrito, molestando a todos los viajeros a los que lograba  alcanzar con sus cortos brazos. Además, la niña berreaba. La madre, a todo esto, al lado, jugando con el tablet, completamente despreocupada, como ausente. A la vista de que la madre era blanca y de edad media, era fácil suponer que había comprado la niña a una de esas empresas de adopción especializadas en adquirir niños a bajo precio en los mercados africanos y venderlos en Europa como si se trataran de mascotas. Y la “madre” debía de tener, más o menos, el mismo concepto porque actuaba con el desinterés propio de la propietaria de un pekinés que ya la ha dejado de fascinar y para la que sacar al perro a dar una vuelta, se convierte en un engorro tedioso.

Justo cuando empezó a bajar gente del tren me di cuenta de que, además, varios jóvenes, de aspectos magrebíes unos, andinos otros y españoles, por supuesto, competían con el acordeonista rumano en convertir aquel vagón en una olla a presión de decibelios. Además de estos, están los que al contestar el teléfono, lejos de hacerlo discretamente, nos obligan a todos los viajeros a que conozcamos sus miserias. ¿Cómo decirles a unos y a otros que ni su música, ni sus conversaciones nos interesan lo más mínimo? Y lo que es peor: ¿podrían comprenderlo? La respuesta que nos daría el magrebí o el andino es que somos racistas. El adolescente español con mirada perdida, el rostro inexpresivo y un rap en el móvil, es probable que ni siquiera entendiera de qué diablos le estábamos hablando.

Avances tecnológicos en manos de paletos

Me ha llamado la atención otro peligro puesto de manifiesto por los otorrinos. Los auriculares de mala calidad (regalados en los trenes de larga distancia, pero también los vendidos con determinados móviles) pueden generar problemas auditivos graves si se utilizan sistemáticamente al máximo de decibelios. El tímpano, simplemente, se endurece. Los consultorios de la seguridad social vienen registrando un aluvión de jóvenes con los oídos supurando, inflamados, o con los primeros síntomas de sordera a los 25 años… Algunos estudios médicos convienen que un porcentaje alto de jóvenes tiene ya tímpanos que corresponden a la tercera edad.

No me importaría en absoluto que esos cretinos se convirtieran en sordos prematuros si no fuera porque la prótesis la tiene que pagar la SS (es decir, usted y yo) y porque están en torno a los 3.000 euros o más. Por lo demás, la mala calidad de los auriculares hace que en algunos casos, no solamente el pobre diablo que los lleva encajados entre el cerebro, tenga que aguantar su ruido, sino que éste alcance a la gente situada en las inmediaciones. Podemos estamos establecer una ley precisa: cuando más cretino es uno de esos sujetos, peor música escucha. Comprobadlo y me daréis la razón.

Cuando se pone en manos de un paleto un teléfono de última generación el destrozo está garantizado: en primer lugar porque, cuando lo utilice, gritará como un poseso y nos obligará a saber a ciencia cierta que es solamente un pobre paleto, sin educación, sin cultura y haciéndonos dudar incluso de si es “portador de valores eternos” o simplemente no porta más que su propia estupidez. Si tiene que oír música, será sin duda la peor música del mundo, diseñada especialmente para homínidos como él. Si tiene que jugar a un videojuego, pondrá el sonido de tal manera que podamos seguir las vicisitudes de la partida a menos de diez metros a la redonda de donde se encuentre. Pon un avance tecnológico en manos de alguien que difícilmente hubiera manejado el pedernal y la azagaya y tendrás un foco emisor de decibelios más.

Quizás el problema sea que desde los años 80 las discotecas españolas han ido elevando los niveles de ruido hasta prácticamente el umbral del dolor. No es raro que se consuman drogas de diseño en algunas discotecas como quien consume azucarillos: de otra manera, difícilmente se podría soportar horas y horas el ruido que apunta directamente contra el corazón.  Hace unos años, un DJ que además era miembro de la banda rock Defcomdos, me comentaba que la gente “se ponía muy loca” con la música que él generosamente les ofrecía. Debía ser verdad y él debía saberlo. Por aquel tiempo, en una fiesta de San Juan estaba previsto que a la medianoche parara la música y un presentador enviara un mensaje del sponsor. Cuando se le dijo al DJ que interrumpiera el festival de decibelios, se negó: simplemente, no quería que lo lincharan allí mismo. Y yo que estaba allí en nombre de un medio de comunicación, percibí que, efectivamente, si la música se detenía bruscamente aquella masa enloquecida hubiera podido reaccionar de la manera más destructiva posible.

Entre eso y que se ha convertido en habitual el botellón (que no es tanto, la reivindicación de un espacio de diversión barato, sino la expresión de la necesidad de emborracharse cuando antes y a la manera más rápida posible) y las drogas “blandas” (que no son sino inhibidores y anestésicos ante la realidad social), parece bastante claro que algo está fallando y que, solamente así se entiende el que seamos el país más ruidoso del mundo. Incluso, el país, con mucho, más ruidoso.

Sociedad tradicional y ruido

Hay que distinguir fiestas como las mascletás valencianas durante el ciclo de fallas, en la que el ruido provocado por kilos y kilos de pólvora se convierte en el desencadenante de una catarsis colectiva, o la fiesta de los tambores de Calanda en donde durante 24 horas el sonido extático de la percusión nos sitúa en otro estado de conciencia. Al igual que el carnaval es la fiesta en la que lo anormal pasa a ser durante unas horas lo normal, para recordar lo que es el orden y lo que es el caos, las fiestas tradicionales del ruido, nos recuerdan lo que es el silencio y la serenidad: aquello que debía ser lo normal a lo largo del año.

Silencio y serenidad van juntos. Incitan al estudio, a la introspección, a la reflexión, o simplemente al vacío mental y a la relajación. No solamente son necesarios para acometer una vida equilibrada y plena, sino que también son imprescindibles para nuestra cordura. Sólo en la ausencia de ruidos podemos recordar quienes somos, podemos ser nosotros mismos y encontrarnos a nosotros mismos. Es evidente que muchos prefieren huir de sí mismos, de sus pobres existencias, de su miserable cotidianeidad, sumergiéndose en una orgía de ruidos.

En cierta ocasión pregunté a un adolescente aficionado a los ritmos más estridentes “¿Por qué te gustan esas músicas?”. La respuesta fue probablemente de las más precisas que he oído nunca: “Porque así no pienso”. Y es que pensar puede generar angustia; es más cómodo huir de los problemas, jugar al avestruz, no encarar jamás la realidad. Pues bien, a eso se le llama “alienación”: alguien alienado es alguien que no es él mismo, sino otra cosa y que es incapaz de llegar a entender lo que supone ser él mismo.

Se entenderá que nos sintamos comprometidos en una campaña personal contra el ruido: no solamente porque anhelamos el silencio como anhelamos el calor de una mujer o como anhelamos cerveza helada en los calores del verano, sino porque consideramos que el ruido es otra patología social y un signo más de degradación y brutalización de una sociedad que está en trance de perder cualquier rastro de orden y ante lo cual lo único que puede hacerle olvidar sus miserias es el aturdimiento de los sentidos.

El gran Buda Sakyamuni, procedente de la casta guerrera, pero predicador incansable de la introspección como camino que conduce a la verdadera serenidad y estabilidad interior, era, por lo demás, pacifista y, sin embargo, tiene una frase que seguramente nos debe hacer pensar: “Si alguien perturba tu meditación, mátalo”. Traigo la frase no como “norma” de comportamiento, obviamente, sino como muestra de que una sociedad tradicional asume que su principal enemigo es el ruido y todo aquello que nos separa de nosotros mismos… justo lo contrario de la sociedad española moderna que, por ser líder de algo innoble, paleto y sin gloria, es líder mundial en ruido… 

(c) Ernesto Milá - infokrisis - [e-mail] - Prohibica la reproducción de este artículo sin indicar origen.

Totila, King of the Goths

Totila, King of the Goths

by Ray Wilson

Ex: http://www.ridingthetiger.org

History can be indifferent to even the worthiest of men, and indeed many exemplary kings and men of renown languish in obscurity, known only to a few historians and specialists. Such is the case with the Ostrogothic King Totila who showed himself capable of overcoming nearly insurmountable odds without staining his name with luxury, avariciousness, and many of the pitfalls which power and status bring and giving the Roman Empire’s best generals some of their most difficult campaigning.

By the 6^th century AD, the Roman Empire had become something of a fading memory. The Ostrogoths had ruled Italy since the time of Theodoric the Great and there had been no Emperor claiming the throne in the western half of the Roman Empire since the death of Julian Nepos in 480 AD. The eastern half of the Empire with the capital at Constantinople held out, although not without considerable pressure from the hostile and powerful Persian empire on the border, and barbarian tribes to the north. Under Justinian, the Eastern Roman empire embarked on a massive program of rebuilding, legal restructuring, and most importantly, reconquest. His successors having left a considerable treasury, and his military and political situation secure by 532 AD, Justinian was keen on seeing the reputation of his Empire restored to its former glory. He was blessed with two of the most capable and clever generals the empire would ever produce, Belisarius and Narses who could turn even the most adverse circumstances into spectacular victories.

The irony of the notion of a “Roman Empire” that didn’t physically possess Rome was not lost on Justinian, who made retaking Italy a priority once his campaign against the Vandals of North Africa succeeded. The situation in Italy was seemingly ripe for conquest, the Goths had not found the among the successors of Theodoric anyone capable of maintaining the situation he left them in 526 AD, and there was considerable discord between the Arian Gothic population, the old Roman senatorial class and the Roman Catholic population. Justinian sent Belisarius with a small expeditionary force to retake Italy and this went smoothly enough.  Within five years the Goths had been deprived of most of their territory, and their king Witiges had been sent to Constantinople in chains. His successors failed to rally their subjects to any great effect and fared no better.

Such was the state of affairs when in 541 AD, Totila was acclaimed the new King of the Italy by the Ostrogoths.  Eraric, the nominal king, had taken the throne after the murder of Ildibad, Totila’s uncle. He was by all accounts a weak and unpopular king, more tolerated than loved. His groveling for peace terms at all costs, infuriated his people against him and he was assassinated. The Goths did not necessarily follow that a king’s heir was his nearest kin as a rule, and generally the nobles would gather and acclaim a new king from the most worthy of their ranks. Totila’s role in the assassination of Eraric is not entirely clear, although it is likely he was aware of it and assented to it. It is known he was regarded as a usurper by Procopius, one of our key sources on this period.  However we must bear in mind that Procopius had reason enough to blacken Totila’s name due to his closeness to Belisarius and position in the imperial court. Whatever the case was, conspiracy against a king, is a black deed and to excise it from an account of his life would be dishonest but judging by his character afterwards, one cannot say he was raised to the purple for self enrichment or desire for power- the last five royals had not died natural deaths or survived in chains in Constantinople and the position of the Goths was a dire one, their kingdom seemed to all observes all but extinguished.

Young and energetic, he quickly proved himself to be a very different man from his predecessors in his ability and wisdom. As G. P. Baker observed;

“The Goths, with Eraric or Witiges for a king, may have been poor creatures; under Totila they suddenly once more became the Goths of Theoderic and Irminric. Long before Totila had accomplished any great action Justinian detected him as one lion might scent another. He recognized a king.”(p. 262)

With only a few fortresses in northern Italy still in his possession, Totila first rallied the Goths at Verona, defeating a poorly planned attack on the stronghold and followed it up with a route of the numerically superior Roman army at Faventia. As Lord Mahon, who was by no means sympathetic to the Gothic cause relates;

“The Goths advanced to charge with all the generous boldness which a national cause inspires, while the Romans displayed the voluntary cowardice of hirelings whose pay had been withheld.”(P. 164)

Having cemented his followers’ loyalty in this action, he pursued an ambitious strategy, bypassing the Roman held fortresses and cities in the area- he gathered his forces together and pushed  headlong into southern Italy, where the Romans had become lax in their guard. Within a short period of time, virtually all of southern Italy was in Gothic hands again. In his treatment of captives and prisoners he was merciful. His keen sense of justice won him praise even by Procopius and his enemies. In one incident a peasant complained to him that one of his bodyguards, a man known for bravery and well liked by his compatriots, had raped his daughter. Despite the urgings of his men, Totila had the Goth executed, insisting that God favored those who serve justice and as king he had to serve justice if his war was to be worth fighting.  In several instances the wives of senatorial patricians fell into his hands, and they were returned to their husbands free from harm, without ransom. Such was his character that the Roman prisoners were induced to serve under his banner with little effort.

After taking Naples he took personal care to make sure food and supplies reached the populace properly. By 543 the Roman presence in Italy was reduced to a few forts and garrisoned towns, all isolated and only capable of resupply by the sea. Totila besieged and captured Rome in 544. Having threatened to turn the city into a field for pasture and depopulate it were his peace terms to Justinian not met, he spared the city this on account of its great history. Some of its defensive structures were removed and its population was spread throughout the countryside to discourage further Imperial assaults. This decision was much criticized by his compatriots as excessively compassionate. Belisarius quickly exploited this by reocuppying the city and rebuilding its defenses at the fastest rate possible as Totila left the city unguarded, not thinking it would be of any strategic value in its current state. Enraged, the Gothic king returned to Rome but his assaults were repulsed. Despite this setback, the Gothic position was everywhere else only growing stronger.

In 549 Totila again besieged Rome. He once again sent peace terms to Constantinople. These were fair and moderate, merely that the Ostrogoths ruled Italy in the name of the Emperor, the same arrangement that had been made with King Theodoric six decades earlier. His envoys were not received. Despite his frustration with the fickle loyalty of the inhabitants and clever stratagems of Belisarius, his troops entered Rome in an orderly fashion, and he restored to their homes those Italians who he had previously expelled and set about rebuilding and repairing the city. The Imperial prisoners were given the choice between leaving Italy or serving under his banner and the majority, as was often the case, threw their lot with Totila. That same year also brought about the recall of Belisarius from Italy. While Belisarius was without a doubt the most brilliant and successful general the Byzantine Empire produced, he was throughout his campaigns was hampered by Justinian’s mistrust of his intentions and lack of resources. The same could not be said for the eunuch Narses, who was able in his own right, but also funded generously. Narses was a careful man, nothing was left to chance. The expeditionary force he took to Italy was around 35,000 strong; near double the size of the one Belisarius had conquered North Africa with 20 years earlier, and larger still than the one Belisarius had taken to Italy.  Nevertheless Totila did not wait for Narses’ arrival with his hands folded but everywhere continued to solidify his hold. He took Sicily, then Corsica and Sardinia, effectively reconquering the entirety of the old kingdom of Theodoric. He also built a navy to challenge the Romans at sea. This was no small feat for a Germanic king in the 6^th century, one only the Vandals had accomplished to any effect before. Success can test one’s character as much as failure, it is to his credit that he never gave over to excessive luxury or overconfidence, and there is no record of his concerning himself with wining and dining, even after the capture of Rome when he allowed popular entertainments for the people.

 

 

The stage was set for the confrontation between Totila and Narses army in 552. Outnumbered significantly, he tried to buy time for reinforcements to arrive. There were episodes of single combat in view of both camps and Totila himself, clad in his finest armor, it is said, made an impressive display of his equestrian skill. Once his relative Teias arrived with 2,000 reinforcements, he elected to launch a surprise headlong charge at Narses. Narses, for his part, had expected such a move and countered it with devastating effect, raining arrows on the Gothic cavalry and shattering his army.

After his death, it fell to Teias to salvage the situation as best he could. Possessing courage and daring, he lacked Totila’s fortune and capacity for clemency, putting to the sword the hostages in his possession. He collected what troops were left for a dash to relieve a siege of Cumae but despite his best efforts, found himself trapped by Mount Vesuvius. In the subsequent battle of Mons Lactarius, the starved and hopelessly outnumbered Goths launched a desperate charge. Teias fell in the fighting, along with most of the top officers under him and the Ostrogothic position essentially collapsed at this point.  The reunited Roman Empire of Justinian did not last long- within a generation much of this territory would be overrun by the Lombards, leaving only a corridor stretching from Ravenna to Rome and some other possessions in southern Italy in their hands. The Lombards also had far less interest in preserving the legacy of Rome than the Ostrogoths. The Imperial treasury had also been seriously stretched by these campaigns, leaving Justinian’s successors with serious economic problems

While he ultimately lost his kingdom and his life, Totila showed himself to possess all the qualities of true nobility and royalty. When he was made king, the Ostrogoths were virtually a conquered people. In his first battles he could only muster up 5,000 or so troops, by his last, only 15,000 and one lost battle was all it would take to reverse all his gains, as Taginae proved. It was to his credit that for 11 years he could maintain his army and the loyalty of both his own people and his Italian subjects against an enemy that could replace loses with far greater ease. His prowess in combat is attested to, but what makes him unique was his mercy and justice. That he continued to display moderation in affairs both civil and military through more than a decade of war stand as testament enough. His honor and character was enough to win over even his enemies who could not help but respect him. As Edward Gibbon said,

“none were deceived, either friends or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency.”

The Gothic kingdom is today a minor footnote in the history of Europe, coming at the tail end of the classical era of Rome, but Totila’s example is just as important today as it was in his own time. In the modern era cynicism and apathy abound and nations are led not by the best, but by sycophants and cowards willing to sell their souls to the highest bidder, it’s easy to imagine things were always this way. We have become a people who believe nobility and just kings only existed in fairy tales. The example of Totila, a king both in name and deed, should remind us otherwise.

Karl Haushofer und Japan

 

Spang, Christian W.
Karl Haushofer und Japan
Die Rezeption seiner geopolitischen Theorien in der deutschen und japanischen Politik

2013 · ISBN 978-3-86205-040-6 · 1008 Seiten, geb. · EUR 105,—
Monographien, herausgegeben vom Deutschen Institut für Japanstudien (Bd. 52)

INHALT

A Einleitung (S. 10)
I. Vorwort (S. 10)
II. Forschungsstand (S. 24)
III. Quellenlage und Fragestellung (S. 64)

B Biographische Grundlagen (S. 78)
I. Bayerischer Militärbeobachter 1909/10: Der Japanaufenthalt als Lebenswende (S. 78)
II. Die zweite Karriere: Vom Generalmajor zum Geopolitiker und Japanexperten (S. 146)

C Geopolitik und außenpolitische Theorie (S. 208)
I. Die Entwicklung der deutschen Geopolitik bis 1945: Von der Politischen Geographie zum Propagandawerkzeug? (S. 208)
II. Haushofers Kontinentalblockthese als Basis für deutsche Weltmachtphantasien (S. 285)

D Haushofer als Vermittler zwischen Deutschland und Japan (S. 364)
I. Von der Idee zur Praxis: Haushofer als Brückenbauer in Deutschland (S. 364)
II. Der deutsche Einfluß auf die Entstehung der Geopolitik in Japan (S. 480)

E Der Einfluß der Geopolitik auf Theorie und Praxis der japanischen Expansion (S. 547)
I. Die Tokyo-Schule und die Ideologie der „Großostasiatischen Wohlstandssphäre" (S. 547)
II. Die Kyoto-Schule und die japanische Armee (S. 656)

F Resümee und Ausblick (S. 712)

Hinweise (S. 735)
Abkürzungsverzeichnis und Glossar (S. 738)
Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis (S. 747)
Anhänge (S. 938)
Personenindex (S. 991)

„Mit diesem imposanten Werk liegt eine überzeugende Neuinterpretation des Wirkens von Karl Haushofer vor: Der globale Ansatz seiner Theorien wird durch die Fokussierung auf Japan und die dortige Rezeption von Haushofers Gedankenwelt erstmals deutlich herausgearbeitet. Haushofer wird überzeugend als theoretischer Wegbereiter nationalsozialistischer Eurasienpolitik beschrieben, der das Drehbuch zum ‚Dreimächtepakt’ verfasste, und mit seinen Werken in Japan sogar auf die Kriegsplanung einwirkte. Das ausgebreitete Detailwissen ist beeindruckend, die Interpretation neu und auch die sprachliche Umsetzung geglückt.“
Bernd Martin (Historiker, Freiburg) im Januar 2013

„Besonders beachtenswert ist, mit welchem Einfühlungsvermögen und welcher Kenntnis der Autor, ein Neuzeithistoriker, auch die geographische Fachliteratur berücksichtigt und in den Forschungskontext einordnet. Damit handelt es sich um eine fachliche Grenzen überschreitende, fundierte sowie äußerst anregende und anspruchsvolle Arbeit.“
Jörg Stadelbauer (Geograph, Freiburg – Yangon/Myanmar) im Februar 2013

„Auf Grund der vorliegenden Darstellung ist die raumpolitische Beeinflussung der NSDAP durch Karl Haushofer nicht mehr zu bestreiten. Im Unterschied zur nationalsozialistischen Ideologie ist für Haushofer der Raum allerdings keine rassisch bestimmte Größe. Vor uns liegt eine Biographie, wie sie umfänglicher und einfühlsamer bezüglich des ‚Titelhelden’ inmitten zweier Gesellschaften wohl kaum verfasst werden kann. Der Autor weist Karl Haushofer den ihm zustehenden Platz in der modernen Geistesgeschichte Deutschlands und Japans zu.“
Hans-Erich Volkmann (Militärhistoriker, Leiter der Forschungsabteilung des MGFA Potsdam, 1994 –2003) im Februar 2013

---

Christian W. Spang, Associate Professor an der Daitō Bunka Universität in Tokyo. Forschungsschwerpunkt: Deutsch-japanische Beziehungen. Weitere Publikationen: C.W. Spang, R.-H. Wippich (Hrsg.), Japanese-German Relations 1895-1945, London, 2006. 2014 wird eine von ihm maßgeblich mitverfasste Geschichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens (OAG) bei Iudicium erscheinen.

Dr. Christian W. Spang on German-Japanese Relations and on Karl Haushofer

Who is Dr. Christian W. Spang ?

Daito Bunka University, Faculty of Foreign Languages, English Department, Faculty Memberedit

 

 

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Karl Haushofer Reorder Add Document

194

 

Karl Haushofer Re-examined – Geopolitics as a Factor within Japanese-German Rapprochement in the Inter-War Years?more

by Christian W. Spang

 

This paper deals with Karl Haushofer's geopolitical ideas and the influence these concepts had on the development of Japanese geopolitics in the 1930s.

More Info: This chapter appeared on pp. 139 - 157 (paperback issued in 2008).

Publisher: London - New York: Routledge

Publication Date: 2006

Publication Name: Christian W. Spang, Rolf-Harald Wippich (eds.), Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945. War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion.

Research Interests:

German Studies, German History, Geopolitics, Japanese History, Asian History, and 3 more20th Century German History, Modern Japanese History, and Karl Haushoferedit

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384

 

Karl Haushofer und Japan. Der Einfluss der Kontinentalblocktheorie auf die Japanpolitik des Dritten Reichesmore

 

by Christian W. Spang

 

One of my earliest papers on Haushofer, based on a conference paper, delivered in Trier 1999. The article deals with Haushofer's influence in Germany. In some parts outdated.

More Info: Vol. 1, S. 121 - 134.

Publisher: Münster: LIT

Publication Date: 2001

Publication Name: Hilaria Gössmann et al. (eds.), 11. Deutschsprachiger Japanologentag in Trier

Research Interests:

German History, Geopolitics, German Language, 20th Century German History, and Haushoferedit

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34

 

Karl Haushofer und die Geopolitik in Japan. Zur Bedeutung Haushofers innerhalb der deutsch-japanischen Beziehungen nach dem Ersten Weltkriegmore

by Christian W. Spang

My earliest paper on Haushofer. The rather long article deals with Haushofer's influence in Germany and in Japan. In some parts outdated.

More Info: Vol. 2, pp. 591-629.

Publisher: Potsdam: Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg

Publication Date: 2000

Publication Name: Irene Diekmann et al. (eds.), Geopolitik. Grenzgänge im Zeitgeist, 2 Volumes.

Research Interests:

Geopolitics, German-Japanese Relations, and Karl Haushoferedit

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68

 

カール・ハウスホーファーと日本の地政学 ―― 第1次世界大戦後の日独関係の中でハウスホーファーのもつ意義についてmore

 

by Christian W. Spang

 

This Japanese paper is a translation of an earlier German article titled “Karl Haushofer und die Geopolitik in Japan. Zur Bedeutung Haushofers innerhalb der deutsch-japanischen Beziehungen nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg”, published in: Irene... more

This Japanese paper is a translation of an earlier German article titled “Karl Haushofer und die Geopolitik in Japan. Zur Bedeutung Haushofers innerhalb der deutsch-japanischen Beziehungen nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg”, published in: Irene Diekmann et al. (eds.), Geopolitik. Grenzgänge im Zeitgeist, Vol. 2, Potsdam: Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, 2000, pp. 591-629.

More Info: "Kāru Hausuhōfā to Nihon no chiseigaku. Dai-ichi-ji sekaitaisen no Nichi-Doku kankei no naka de Hausuhōfā no motsu igi ni tsuite". Translation by Prof. em. Motosuki Ishii (石井素介名誉教授), Vol. 6 (2001), pp. 2-21. Reissued as reference material I (sankō shiryō I) in: Ajiagaku Sōsho, 2005.

Publisher: 大阪市立大学文学部地理学教室

Journal Name: 空間・社会・地理思想 Kūkan, Shakai, Chiri-shisō (Space, Society and Geographical Thought)

Publication Date: Jul 2001

Publication Name: 『アジア学叢書』、第132巻、東京：大空社、2005年5月、1 - 20 [584‐563] 頁。

Research Interests:

German History, Japanese History, 20th Century German History, and Karl Haushoferedit

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www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/geo/pdf/%20space06/01spang.pdf

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54

 

日独関係におけるカール・ハウスホーファーの学説と人脈1909 - 1945more

 

by Christian W. Spang

 

 

More Info: Vol. 46, pp. 35 - 52. This paper is based on a paper that I read in 1999 in Tokyo in German. Nakata Jun (中田潤訳) translated the paper into Japanese.

Journal Name: 現代史研究 (Gendaishi Kenkyu), Journal of Modern and Contemporary History

Organization: 現代史研究会 (Gendaishi Kenkyukai), Japanese Society for the Study of Modern History

Publication Date: Dec 2000

Research Interests:

Geopolitics, Modern Japanese History, German-Japanese Relations, and Karl Haushoferedit

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Elementos n°76: la cultura como objecto-mercancia

Elementos n°76

La cultura como objecto-mercancia

 

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Sumario

 

Cultura y mercancía, por Ignacio Sánchez Cámara

 

La Cultura y la Mercancía, por Mario Fernando Bolognesi

 

El consumo como cultura. Una perspectiva teórica sistémica, por Kai-Uwe Hellmann

 

La cultura-artilugio, por Guillaume Faye

 

La cultura sin cultura, por César Antonio Molina

 

Los avatares de la cultura como mercancía, por Miquel Amorós

 

La cultura en la era del consumo, por Zygmunt Bauman

 

La negación y el consumo de la cultura, por Guy Debord

 

Cultura y economía: itinerario de dos conceptos, por Tomás Ariztía

 

Consumo de bienes culturales, por Luz María Ortega Villa

 

Las contradicciones culturales del capitalismo, por Daniel Bell

 

Résister par l’Histoire, ou l’enracinement suprême

 

Résister par l’Histoire, ou l’enracinement suprême

Ex: http://anti-mythes.blogspot.com

 

La démocratie moderne dans laquelle nous vivons donne des signes toujours plus nombreux de son principal objectif : la destruction de l’individu à travers un déracinement continu. L’homme aujourd’hui arraché à son histoire, à sa religion, à sa patrie, à sa famille, n’est devenu qu’un gibier pour le marché, un animal apolitique et anhistorique, admirateur et narcissique du présent. Il est essentiel de bien comprendre l’ampleur de ce déracinement ainsi que ses conséquences pour pouvoir s’enraciner et, par voie de fait, résister.

I. Le présent comme valeur suprême

Tocqueville, déjà, dans La démocratie en Amérique, expliquait que l’avènement de l’individu et son sacre comme valeur suprême mèneraient à un rétrécissement de son horizon temporel1.

Passant du rétrécissement au désintérêt pour les anciens, l’homme moderne a perdu la mémoire puisqu’elle est inutile dans sa jouissance matérielle perpétuelle du moment présent. La vie de l’homme moderne est en grande partie rythmée par le consumérisme effréné, son pseudo épanouissement dans le divertissement et enfin, l’invasion de la société par le moi, le culte narcissique. C’est ce déclin du sens du temps historique qui fait alors que chaque génération se perçoit comme étant au début, à l’an 0 de l’humanité, désaffiliée et autocentrée sur elle-même, aboutissant inéluctablement à l’éternelle revendication de droits individuels, puisque la mort de l’histoire a entraîné dans sa chute la disparition du devoir.

II. L’idéal de vérité abandonné

Néanmoins, notre société compte encore quelques curieux qui tentent de penser l’histoire.

Malheureusement cette démocratie totalitaire, par l’intermédiaire des médias de masse et des institutions, verrouille l’analyse historique à travers nos programmes scolaires3 ou à travers la déformation de faits historiques (comme nous l’a démontré la récente commémoration du débarquement de Normandie4 5) et allant même, parfois, jusqu’à écrire l’histoire dans le cadre des lois mémorielles, le politicien prenant ouvertement la place de l’historien. Ce constat déjà largement développé et facilement constatable doit être néanmoins précisé afin que l’idéal de vérité, tout relatif soit-il, puisse être sauvegardé face au relativisme moderne, qui accepte tout et permet de dire n’importe quoi.

En effet comme le précise Simone Weil, c’est la conception moderne de l’histoire, qui en ayant délaissé le désir de vérité, l’a substitué par autant d’inexactitude. Cet abandon a alors promu le conformisme et le carriérisme comme étant les nouvelles valeurs du système qui, dépourvu de morale, n’a comme objectif que l’unique présentation d’une suite ennuyante de dates, de faits erronés ou la promotion du bienfait de la « modernité ». La déchristianisation est alors un facteur déterminant dans cette perte de la morale : l’éducation religieuse d’ordre spirituel accompagnait autrefois le développement intellectuel, transmettant en même temps cet amour pour la vérité.

III. La déferlante des humanités

Cette déformation de l’histoire et l’abandon de son idéal de vérité va de pair avec la promotion des humanités qui a influencé l’historien pour en faire le propagandiste de la modernité et du progrès. De la même manière que la gauche a réussi à museler la droite par son droit de l’hommisme comme Éric Zemmour aime à le répéter, le XXe siècle a été l’avènement des sciences sociales, tuant du même coup le possible recours à l’Histoire.

Dans ce qu’on appelle l’humeur post-moderniste, règne le rejet des théories historiques, considérant l’histoire de l’humanité comme étant la croissance d’un individu passant de l’enfance à la maturité, l’histoire étant assimilée par conséquent à un âge d’oppression et d’atteinte à la liberté, interdisant de fait le respect de la tradition : « seul l’homme qui a dépassé les stades de la conscience appartenant au passé…peut atteindre une pleine conscience du présent ». Or on l’aura compris, c’est cette même pleine conscience du présent qui en a vidé le sens dans son rejet du passé. Outre sa fuite en avant dans le dogme de la liberté qui n’engendre qu’une inversion des valeurs morales choquant la décence commune, les sciences sociales font vivre l’homme dans l’idéal de la méritocratie, de l’ascension sociale, dans la continuité libérale inspirée des « Lumières ». La focalisation sur l’ascension au détriment du fond empêche de penser et de mettre en perspective les analyses par une culture historique. En plus de son déni de réalité c’est la condamnation de la possibilité de l’appréhender.

Concrètement, c’est principalement la stigmatisation du Moyen Âge, représenté comme période obscure et liberticide, rythmée par les guerres de religions, qui a propagé la certitude « d’un sens de l’histoire » qui oblige à accepter le présent comme progrès et notre démocratie moderne comme étant la fin de l’histoire. Cette liquidation aboutit à ce que Jean Claude Michéa appelle le complexe d’Orphée qui interdit de s’inspirer du passé puisqu’il est assimilé à la matrice intellectuelle du « réac primitif » désigné comme « facho en devenir »6.

Néanmoins, le recours à l’histoire se fait parfois, dans le but non pas d’ostraciser ou de calomnier le passé, mais dans l’optique de le revendiquer à travers un prisme bien particulier. Un culte de la victimisation (on pense alors à l’holocauste ou l’Algérie française) qui fait de l’exhibition des blessures, pourtant normalement refermées après tant d’années, un droit intarissable à la subvention et à l’impunité7. L’histoire, non pas pour permettre le vivre-ensemble à travers une histoire commune et la fierté d’appartenir à celle-ci, mais comme liquidateur du roman national et de l’histoire de France, tout simplement. On comprend mieux alors pourquoi tant de drapeaux algériens étaient brandis dernièrement, reflétant bien pour certains un esprit d’affront éhonté à notre souveraineté.

IV. L’histoire pour pouvoir résister

Annihiler la capacité critique de l’homme par des slogans, une déformation de l’histoire ou tout simplement par sa suppression contribue à faire des citoyens incultes, apatrides et sans repères, se laissant imposer la métaphysique de l’achat compulsif jusqu’à la désertion civique, soutenant la guerre contre « l’axe du mal »8 par l’idéologie droit de l’hommiste et au final glorifiant la destruction de la nation par l’Union Européenne et les revendications régionalistes.

Préserver notre histoire et son génie, c’est préserver notre patrie et son indépendance, car il n’y a pas de patrie sans histoire. La nation jouant réciproquement un rôle dans ce lien entre le passé et l’avenir comme aimait à l’écrire Simone Weil ; « La nation seule, depuis déjà longtemps, joue le rôle qui constitue par excellence la mission de la collectivité à l’égard de l’être humain, à savoir assurer à travers le présent une liaison entre le passé et l’avenir. » 9

 

Notes : 

 

1 Tocqueville – de la démocratie en Amérique II

2 Christopher Lash – La culture du narcissisme

3 http://www.egaliteetreconciliation.fr/Marion-Sigaut-analyse-deux-versions-d-un-manuel-d-histoire-21703.html

4 Yves Nantillé – 1944.La Normandie sous les bombes alliées, La nouvelle revue d’histoire numéro72 p27

5 http://www.upr.fr/actualite/france/charles-de-gaulle-refusait-de-commemorer-le-debarquement-des-anglo-saxons-le-6-juin-1964

6 Jean claude Michéa – Le complexe d’orphée

7 Christopher Lach – La trahison des élites

8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btkJhAM7hZw

9 Simone Weil – L’enracinement

Source : 

Le bréviaire des patriotes :: lien

http://www.voxnr.com/cc/dt_autres/EupVuVFkZFqxiEDNGN.shtml

Elementos n°75: Ortega y Gasset y la Konservative Revolution

Elementos n°75

Ortega y Gasset y la Konservative Revolution alemana

 

 

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Sumario

 

La recepción del pensamiento conservador-radical europeo en España (1913-1930), por Pedro Carlos González Cuevas

 

Un español en la Revolución Conservadora alemana. Ortega y Gasset y la «Konservative Revolution», por Jesús J. Sebastián

 

El ser y el no-ser de una Revolución Conservadora en Europa

La rehabilitación de la Revolución Conservadora por la Nueva Derecha

¿Existió realmente una “Revolución Conservadora” en España?

Ortega y Gasset y la Revolución Conservadora alemana

La recepción de Nietzsche en España: una aproximación

La impronta spengleriana: Ortega frente a Spengler

El tema de nuestro tiempo: la crisis de la modernidad

Meditación sobre Europa: la idea de la Nación Europa

La rebelión de las masas, las élites y el principio aristocrático

Meditación sobre el hombre y la técnica

La deshumanización del arte: manifiesto para su purificación

Ortega y Gasset o la oportunidad perdida para el conservadurismo revolucionario en España

 

Ortega y la «Revolución Conservadora» en Alemania, por Sabine Ribka

 

La Revolución conservadora

Un conservadurismo de nuevo cuño

La crítica al régimen weimariano

El rechazo selectivo de la modernidad

La relación con el nacionalsocialismo

Ortega y su diálogo con la cultura alemana

La «zona tórrida de Nietzsche»

Ortega ante la gran guerra

La necesidad de una política viril

Un diputado revolucionario-conservador

Las enseñanzas alemanas