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Sayings of the Buddha [2]
Rupert Gethin, translator
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008
Anyone who wishes to promote certain values is faced with the challenge of how to maintain those values over time: throughout one’s life, from one generation to the next, and across the centuries. A people’s adherence to values is likely to wane over time, overcome by lower drives, such as the desires for material comfort and personal self-indulgence. We know this well in our own era: the collapse of traditional values has given way to a general slouching into consumerism and individualism. In good times especially, the inner child and the bottomless belly take charge of the soul. The maintenance of values in the face of decadence is no easy thing.
I believe we have much to learn in this respect from the sole ideological systems and spiritual communities which have survived for millennia: the religions. I have personally become convinced that piety, or the religious instinct, plays the critical role in maintaining adherence to values above other impulses. Piety is the only impulse which can be rationally educated. Indeed, that is why I believe the religious instinct – if well-educated – is more valuable than the strictly ethnocentric one: an ethnocentric Frenchman may defend his people, but enter into petty conflicts with genetically very similar neighboring Europeans, whereas a pious European identitarian defends both the French nation and the great European family of nations of which she is a part.
The creed of Siddhartha Gautama, better known as the Buddha, has largely died out in his native India, and yet over five hundred million souls claim to follow his way of life today, mostly in East and Southeast Asia, but increasingly also in the West, where Buddhism has growing appeal to generations of Europeans lost in in an increasingly materialist, relativist, and nihilistic age, looking for spiritual comfort and transcendence.
I am not here judging the content of Buddhist doctrine. What is perhaps the fundamental insight – that one must let go of senses, feelings, the world, all things, indeed the mind itself, for all is flux and vanity – may well be true. But one could also deem this nihilism, and indeed Gautama was accused of this during his own lifetime. What is clear is that Buddhism is evolutionarily maladaptive for its ascetics: the Buddhist monk rejects family life and goes childless. Furthermore, the Buddha explicitly rejected the caste divisions which the Hindus had established to preserve their Aryan blood.[1]
Savitri Devi classes Gautama among the “men above Time” who embody timeless values only by withdrawing from this fallen world, rather than the superior “men against Time” who seek to impose them in this world. Those who wish to see the perpetuation of their people are more likely to be touched by the spirit of the Hindus’ Bhagavad Gita [3], where in the face of the same cosmic oblivion, the Lord commands Prince Arjuna to embrace his duty as a warrior: “Therefore go to it, grasp fame! And having conquered your enemies, enjoy a thriving kingship.”[2]
What I examine here, and what I think is relevant to all who seek to make lasting cultural change, is the Buddha’s practice and advice for sustaining a spiritual community which can survive the ages. (By “the Buddha,” I mean the figure portrayed in the Pali Cannon, which are our earliest records of Gautama’s teachings, as edited by Buddhist disciples generations later. As with other spiritual leaders who left no writings of their own, such as Socrates and Jesus, we are unsure to what extent the Buddha of the scriptures is faithful to the historical Gautama. I will not deal with that question here: I am interested in what the mythical “Buddha” of the scriptures, as established by Buddhist leaders, has to say on what has proved to be a very successful religion.)
I cannot read about Gautama without sensing a certain kinship with our own Western tradition. He was said to have blue eyes and dark hair. He spoke an Indo-European language, descended from the same Aryan conquerors who gave we Europeans most of our languages. Furthermore, though this might appear superficial, I see innumerable parallels between Buddhist insights and practices and those of the Greek philosophical tradition, which began at around the same time. Buddhism and Greek philosophy often wrestle with the very same issues. The early Buddhists debated and bickered about ideas, as one might in a philosophical school. But the parallel between Buddhism and Greek philosophy is most apparent if, like Pierre Hadot [4], we understand that philosophy not as simply a series of ideas or doctrines, but as a way of life cultivating the soul through spiritual exercises.
Like Socrates, the Buddha is more concerned with ethics than metaphysics, and both practiced prolonged meditation (which in Zen Buddhism becomes the central component) and trained themselves in self-control. Like Plato’s Socrates, a fundamental part of the Buddha’s meditation is the contemplation of death, and the Buddhist, like the philosopher, does not fear death.[3] Like Plato, the Buddha is concerned only with the eternal; he polices his own senses and withdraws from this world to the spiritual one. (A difference: Plato’s philosopher-king is reluctantly dragged back into the political world, whereas the Buddha’s seems to withdraw completely.[4]) Like Diogenes, the Buddhist ascetic lives as a homeless beggar, surviving on self-discipline and alms, teaching morals to the people by his example. But whereas Diogenes did so alone and only had isolated followers, the Buddha established not just a philosophical school but a monastic community: the Sangha. Plato’s praise for Pythagoras, the mathematician-mystic who also established a way of life as part of a kind of monastic community, could well be applied to Gautama:
Is there any evidence that, during his lifetime, [Homer] was a mentor to people, and that they used to value him for his teaching and the handed down to their successors a particular Homeric way of life? This is what happened to Pythagoras: he wasn’t only held in extremely high regard for his teaching during his lifetime, but his successors even now call their way of life Pythagorean and somehow seem to stand out from all other people.[5]
For his part, Gautama became, according to the Pali Canon, “a perfect buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, happy, one who understands the world, an unsurpassed charioteer of men to be tamed, teach of gods and men, a blessed buddha.”[6]
Like the Stoics, the Buddha preaches a studious indifference to that which is in flux, a reconciliation with the nature of existence. The philosophers wish to learn about nature, the world, in order to align their ideas and lives with it. For Buddhists, “Dharma” means at once the teachings of the Buddha, the nature of existence, and the Buddhist way of life. Pierre Hadot writes that “despite my reticence against the use of comparativism in philosophy” he cannot resist highlighting the similarities between a Buddhist sutra’s description of the ideal sage and the sage of the Socratic tradition:
Overcoming all
knowing all,
wise.
With regard to all things:
unsmeared. Abandoning all,
in the ending of craving,
released:
The enlightened call him a sage. . . .
The wandering solitary sage,
uncomplacent, unshaken by praise or blame. . . .
Leader of others, by others unled:
The enlightened call him a sage.[7]
The ancient Greeks and Indians did not have the opportunity to interact much in our history. However, it is striking that when Alexander the Great conquered Persia and the two civilizations came into contact, Greco-Indian cultural cross-fertilization proved quite fruitful. The Greeks identified the Indian brahmans (and possibly the Buddhist ascetics) with their own philosophers, calling them “gymnosophists” or “naked sophists.” Evidently, the Greeks were impressed by the yogis’ physical-spiritual exercises. Greek kings ruled parts of India and Afghanistan for only about two centuries after Alexander’s death. And yet, during that time, many of these Greeks embraced Buddhism and created some of that tradition’s finest art with the brief and insufficiently known flowering of Greco-Buddhist culture [5].
All spiritual traditions are confronted with the problem of whether their followers should be householders or ascetics. When should a gifted man dedicate himself to the “distractions” of working and family life, and when should he dedicate himself completely to spiritual exercises? Different traditions give different answers.[8] The Buddha perfected a tradition of young men leaving their household and going childless in order to dedicate their lives as wandering mendicants to meditation. He says in favor of becoming a family-free monk: “It is not easy to practice the spiritual life in all its fullness and purity, like a polished shell, while living in a house.”[9] The monk learns to live with nothing but his ocher robe and his alms bowl, meditating by roots of trees or in deserted houses. That is enough. The monk has nothing he may lose, he is content, having “no desire for joy,” he “applies and directs his mind toward creating a body made of mind.”[10] He is not a parasitic NEET however, for he is constantly training himself, and serves a useful social purpose: “[H]e brings together those who are divided and encourages those who are united . . . he speaks words that will bring about harmony.”[11]
Much of the appeal of Buddhism is that it requires almost nothing to practice and is far less dependent on speculative metaphysics and fanciful stories than other religions. Buddhism, unlike the long-dead philosophical schools of Antiquity, succeeded in institutionalizing its philosophy and spiritual practice as a religion which endures still today. (I pass over the fact that, obviously, Greco-Roman philosophy was preserved in other senses, e.g. being crystalized in certain Christian practices and doctrines, in inspiring much of the Enlightenment, etc.)
The Buddha created the spiritual community of monks, the Sangha. The state may provide for the Sangha (e.g. alms, donation of parks). However, the spiritual community is independent of the state, the monks ever cultivating their own inner purity. If anything, the state should be informed by the Sangha. The monks honor and revere the great sages who came before them and inspire themselves from their example. The Sangha then moralizes the people towards self-discipline and educates them towards higher truths. One can think of analogous institutions in other traditions.
The Buddha gives prescriptions not only on how the Sangha may be maintained, but also has advice for householders and statesmen. These precepts are generally conservative and sound. In one sutra, the Buddha describes “the householder’s discipline” in terms which would resonate in all traditional societies. He says there are “six ways of losing one’s belongings” which the householder should not pursue:
- being devoted to the recklessness of strong drink and spirits
- wandering in the streets at unseemly hours
- frequenting fairs” (where one encounters music and spectacle)
- being devoted to the recklessness of gambling
- being devoted to bad friends
- being habitually idle[12]
The Buddha is then obviously, like all true spiritual leaders, hostile to the “spirit of ‘68.” Each way of losing one’s belongings is accompanied by six dangers, a typical Buddhist mnemonic device. The Buddha also advises against friendship with “one who is all talk.”[13]
The Buddha says that the householder’s piety is not expressed through adherence to sacrificial rituals – apparently an attack against Hindu practice – but through one’s way of life. Hindus symbolically sacrifice in six directions during their rituals, in contrast to the Buddhist householder:
These six directions should be seen as follows: the east should be seen as one’s mother and father, the south as one’s teachers, the west as one’s wife and children, the north as one’s friends and companions, the direction below as servants and workers, the direction above ascetics and brahmans.[14]
Furthermore, Buddhist householders are expected to be good family men with the usual adaptive traditional values: parents must educate their children morally, train them for a trade, find them a wife, and give them an inheritance. If one is good to one’s friends, they will “honor one’s descendants.”[15] Without kindness and justice “then neither mothers nor fathers / Win the respect and worship owed them by their sons.”[16] If Buddhism can be considered maladaptive for ascetics, its precepts for householders are quite healthy. Furthermore, to kill one’s father or mother is considered one of the supreme crimes in Buddhism, akin to wounding a buddha or dividing the Sanhga.[17] Even in Buddhism, as in so many traditional worldviews, one finds a pairing of blood and spirit in the supreme moral rules.
The Buddha’s political advice is similarly traditional. Just prior to his death and his attainment of final nirvana, he is said to have given political and religious advice which may perhaps be taken to be his testament. He describes “seven principles for avoiding decline” which, if maintained, would allow a people (in this case, the Vajji Republic) to “be expected to prosper, not to decline.”[18] These seven principles are:
- to meet together frequently and regularly
- to sit down together in concord, to get up together in concord, and to conduct their business in concord
- not to make pronouncements that have not been agreed, not to revoke pronouncements that have been agreed, but to proceed in accordance with the ancient laws of the Vajjis that are agreed pronouncements
- to respect honor, revere, and worship those among them who are their elders, and to listen to what they say
- not to abduct and force women and girls of good family into sexual relations
- to respect, honor, revere, and worship their ancestral shrines, both those that are central those that are outlying, and not to neglect the appropriate offerings that were given and made in the past
- to provide holy men with proper care, protection, and guard, such that those who have not come to their realm are encouraged to come, and those that have come live easily
The Buddha then expresses advice which many would consider sensible: cultivate a spirit of concord and consensus, honor tradition and elders, and respect women and religion.
In this and other sutras, the Buddha and his disciples gives advice on how to have a happy and cohesive Sangha. Some of these are rather amusing, evoking as they do the typical bickering one finds among intellectuals and ideological disciples. The Buddha observes, “[S]ome ascetics and brahmans consume the food offered by the faithful while still addicted to quarrelsome talk.”[19] Furthermore, the monks must not abuse their position as spiritual leaders by charging fees from superstitious laymen for magic tricks and other “childish arts.”
For a Buddhist monk, excessive talking is a sign of restlessness and of not living the way. One of the Buddha’s disciples calmed monks who were “agitated, uncontrolled, restless, talkative, conversing about this and that; with their minds astray, they were not fully aware, not concentrated; their thoughts wandered and their senses were uncontrolled.”[20]
There was also evidently conflict between monks who specialized in erudition and those who specialized in practice, as a certain Mahacunda said:
Monks who are specialists in the teachings disparage monks who are meditators: “Those meditators, they meditate and meditate, always saying, ‘We are the ones who meditate!’ But what do they meditate for? Why do they meditate? How exactly do they meditate?” . . .
On the other hand, monks who are meditators disparage monks who are specialists in the teachings: “Those specialists in the teachings, who are always saying, ‘We are the ones who are specialists in the teachings!’ – they are agitated, uncontrolled, restless, talkative, conversing about this and their; with their minds astray, they are not fully aware, not concentrated; their thoughts wander and their senses are uncontrolled. But what are they specialists in the teachings for? Why are they specialists in the teachings? How exactly are they specialists in the teaching?” . . .
So, friends, you should train yourselves to think: “As monks who are specialists in the teachings we will speaking in praise of monks who are meditators.” Why must you train yourselves this way? They are remarkable and difficult to find in this world, these people who live having experienced the deathless directly.
So, friends, you should train yourselves to think: “As monks who are meditators we will speak in praise of monks who are specialists in the teachings.” Why must you train yourselves in this way? They are remarkable and difficult to find in this world, these people who reach insight, having penetrated the deep significance of a term by their understanding.[21]
Any spiritual movement will then tend to be divided between scholars and practitioners, and the two must respect each other.
The Buddha also condemned those monks who learn only to better assert themselves in argument, rather than to live better. He likened such “learning” to grabbing a snake without knowing how to hold it properly, and so getting bitten:
Monks, some foolish men learn the teaching – the sayings, chants, analyses, verses, utterances, traditions, birth stories, marvels, and dialogues. Yet after they have learned the teaching they do not use wisdom to consider the purpose of those teachings. And when they do not use wisdom to consider their purpose the teachings don’t succeed in bearing deep reflection: the only benefit those people get from learning the teaching is the ability to argue and counter criticism; the point of their learning the teaching is missed by them.[22]
The Buddha’s most detailed advice for the Sangha, at least in this volume, is to be found in the sutra on his final nirvana, beside his political advice to the Vajjis. Again, the Buddha says that if the Sangha continuously follows these precepts, it can “be expected to prosper, not to decline.”[23] The first seven principles for avoiding decline are:
- meet together frequently and regularly
- sit down together in concord, to get up together in concord, and to conduct the business of the community in concord
- not to make pronouncements that have not been agreed, not to revoke pronouncements that have been agreed, but to proceed in accordance with the precepts that are agreed pronouncements
- respect, honor, revere, and worship those monks who are elders, possess the pearls of wisdom, went forth into the religious life long ago, are the fathers and leaders of the community, and to listen to what they say
- to not be overcome by the kind of craving that leads to rebirth
- to have regard for living in the forest”
- individually continue to establish mindfulness, such that well-behaved companions in the spiritual life who have not come are encouraged to come, and that have come live easily
There must then be frequent gatherings of the faithful, respect for consensus, respect for elders, and sticking to the practice (including pride in the austerity of “life in the forest”). This is similar in some respects to the Buddha’s political advice. He provides other advice for monks to preserve the Sangha; among these I highlight: to not become enamored with pleasure, to avoid bad associates, to “not give up halfway with some inferior achievement,” to maintain the spiritual practices (e.g. mindfulness) and doctrines (e.g. notions of impermanence and illusion of the self), “to show friendliness to their companions in the spiritual life in their acts of body . . . in their acts of speech . . . in their acts of thoughts both in their presence and in private,” to only rightfully own possessions, and to maintain good conduct.[24]
The religious instinct’s power is pervasive in human affairs. This can be so consciously, as with organized religions and certain ideologies, or it can be unconsciously so, as with the hatred of liberal bigots against those who think differently. But that power cannot be denied. I believe more generally that the religious impulse has evolved among humans both as an emotional mechanism to give meaning to their individual lives and as a social mechanism to enforce group norms. Today, the cost of publishing and of spreading memes, at least on a Website, is almost reduced to zero by the wonders of technology. In past ages, the most ancient texts and memes that have survived are typically religious ones, precisely because the religious sentiment is such a powerful drive in ordering human societies and giving meaning to a human life. Only the religions have been able to maintain adherence to certain texts, doctrines, and symbols throughout the millennia.
We may differ with the Buddha’s apparent contempt for the blood and his withdrawal from the household and the world. Jeremy Turner tells me that with the technology and high standards of living of the modern era, one does not need to reject household life to be a good European activist. But the Buddha’s lessons for how to create and maintain a spiritual community, both within ourselves and as a group, strike me as having enduring relevance. For whatever happens politically, we will need something like a “European identitarian Sangha” independent of the state, training ourselves and perfecting our principles, enlightening the people, and ensuring the prince’s action is righteous. For we all hope for a new spiritual law among the European peoples.
Notes
1. In one story, two disciples report to the Buddha their encounter with high-caste Hindus:
“The Brahman class,” they say, “is the best; the other classes are inferior. The brahman class is fair, the other classes are dark. Only brahmans can be pure, not non-brahmans. Only brahmas are true sons of Brahmá, born from his mouth, coming from Brahmá, created by Brahmá, heirs of Brahmá. You have given up the best class and joined an inferior class, that of those pathetic, shaven-headed, extravagant ascetics, the dark descendants of our ancestor’s feet.” (Gethin, Sayings of the Buddha, Aggañña Sutta [The Origin of Things], pp. 117-8)
The Buddha then rebuts the Hindus.
2. W. J. Johnson (trans.), The Bhagavad Gita (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), Chapter 11, paragraph 33.
3. Nine of the fourteen stages of the Buddha’s meditation for “establishing mindfulness” in the Satipatṭhāna Sutta involve contemplating one’s own body as a corpse in various stages of putrefaction. This grisly embrace of death is something Western Buddhists (and popular yoga practitioners) tend to gloss over.
4. I am thinking of the ideal Buddhist king’s withdrawal from the world into the “Palace of Dharma” in the Mahāsudassana Sutta.
5. Plato (trans. Robin Waterfield), The Republic [6] (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 600b.
6. Gethin, Sayings, Bodhirajakumara Sutta (Dialogue with Prince Body), pp. 192-193.
7. English translation of the Muni Sutta [7] by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Pierre Hadot, Qu’est-ce que la philosophie antique? (English: What is Ancient Philsophy? [8]) (Paris: Gallimard, 1995), p. 351.
8. To name only a few: Socrates was a good soldier and a father, albeit a negligent one, ultimately choosing death and abandoning his family in the name of philosophy; the Emperor Julian argued that Cynicism was meant for true asceticism and the easier Stoicism was meant for householders; Catholic priests do not marry, whereas Protestant and Orthodox ones may; good National Socialists are with few exceptions (mostly notably Hitler himself) expected to beget children.
9. Gethin, Sayings, Samaññaphala Sutta (the Fruits of the Ascetic Life), p. 19.
10. Ibid., pp. 29-30.
11. Ibid., p. 20.
12. Ibid., Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta (the Buddha’s Final Nirvana), p. 131.
13. Ibid., p. 133.
14. Ibid., p. 135.
15. Ibid., p. 136.
16. Ibid., p. 138.
17. Ibid., p. 276.
18. Ibid., Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta (The Buddha’s Final Nirvana), pp. 39-40.
19. Ibid., Samaññaphala Sutta (The Fruits of the Ascetic Life), p. 22.
20. Ibid., Moggallāna, p. 239.
21. Ibid., Mahācunda , pp. 260-1.
22. Ibid., Alagaddūpama Sutta (The Simile of the Snake), pp. 159-160.
23. Ibid., Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta (The Buddha’s Final Nirvana), p. 42.
24. Ibid., p. 44.
French and English racism was introduced to Germany by the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain who had a seminal influence on Hitlerism. English Darwinism, a manifestation of the materialistic Zeitgeist that dominated England, was brought to Germany by Ernst Haeckel; although Blumenbach had already begun to classify race according to cranial measurements during the 18th century. Nonetheless, biological racism reflects the English Zeitgeist of materialism. It provided primary materialistic doctrines to dethrone Tradition. Its application to economics also provided a scientific justification for the “class struggle” of both the capitalistic and socialistic varieties. Hitlerism was an attempt to synthesis the English eugenics of Galton and the evolution of Darwin with the metaphysis of German Idealism. Italian Traditionalist Julius Evola attempted to counter the later influence of Hitlerian racism on Italian Fascism by developing a “metaphysical racism,” and the concept of the “race of the spirit,” which has its parallels in Spengler, whose approach to race is in the Traditionalist mode of the German Idealists.
Julius Evola, while repudiating the zoological primacy of “racism” as another form of materialism and therefore anti-Traditional, suggested that a “spiritual racism” is necessary to oppose the forces seeking to turn man into an amorphous mass; as interchangeable economic units without roots; what is now called “globalisation”. 
Here Livy is observing that occupiers among foreign peoples “go native”, as one might say. The occupiers are pulled downward, rather than elevating their subjects upward, not through genetic contact but through moral and cultural corruption. The Syrians, Parthians and Egyptians, had already become historically and culturally passé, or Fellaheen, as Spengler puts it. The Macedonian Greeks in those colonies succumbed to the force of etiolation. Alexander even encouraged this in an effort to meld all subjects into one Greek mass, which resulted not from a Hellenic civilisation passed along by multitudinous peoples, but in a chaotic mass from which Greece did not recover, despite the Greeks staying racially intact. Unlike the Jews in particular, the Greeks, Romans and other conquerors did not have the strength of Tradition to maintain themselves among alien cultures. Dr. W. W. Tarn stated of this process:
“In our time all Greece was visited by a dearth of children and generally a decay of population, owing to which the cities were denuded of inhabitants, and a failure of productiveness resulted, though there were no long-continued wars or serious pestilences among us. If, then, any one had advised our sending to ask the gods in regard to this, what we were to do or say in order to become more numerous and better fill our cities,—would he not have seemed a futile person, when the cause was manifest and the cure in our own hands? For this evil grew upon us rapidly, and without attracting attention, by our men becoming perverted to a passion for show and money and the pleasures of an idle life, and accordingly either not marrying at all, or, if they did marry, refusing to rear the children that were born, or at most one or two out of a great number, for the sake of leaving them well off or bringing them up in extravagant luxury. For when there are only one or two sons, it is evident that, if war or pestilence carries off one, the houses must be left heirless: and, like swarms of bees, little by little the cities become sparsely inhabited and weak. On this subject there is no need to ask the gods how we are to be relieved from such a curse: for any one in the world will tell you that it is by the men themselves if possible changing their objects of ambition; or, if that cannot be done, by passing laws for the preservation of infants”.
Alien immigration introduces cultural elements that dislocate the social and ethical basis of a Civilisation and aggravate an existing pathological condition. The English scholar Professor C. Northcote Parkinson, writing on the fall of Rome, commented that the Roman conquerors were subjected “to cultural inundation and grassroots influence”. Because Rome extended throughout the world, like the present Late Western, the economic opportunities accorded by Rome drew in all the elements of the subject peoples, “groups of mixed origin and alien ways of life”. “Even more significant was what the Romans learnt while on duty overseas, for men so influenced were of the highest rank”. Parkinson quotes Edward Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, referring to the Roman colony of Antioch: 
What is notable is not that the Romans miscegenated with Orientals, but that the uprooted, amorphous masses of the cities no longer adhered to the Traditions on which Roman civilisation was founded. The same process can be seen today at work in New York, London and Paris. Duff wrote of this, and we might consider the parallels with our own time: 
India is the most commonly cited example of a civilisation that decayed through miscegenation, the invading Aryans imparting a High Culture on India and then forever falling into decay because of miscegenation with the low caste “blacks”, or Dravidians. However, Genetic research indicates that the higher castes have retained to the present a predominately Caucasian genetic inheritance.
Of Egypt’s chaos contemporary sages observed, as they did of Rome and India, a disintegration of authority, traditional religion, and the founding ethos and mythos around which a healthy culture revolves. Egypt was often subjected to invasions and to natural disasters. These served as catalysts for culture degeneration. The papyrus called The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, state that after invasions and what seems to have been a class war, Egypt fell apart, there was family strife, the noble families were dispossessed by the lowest castes, authority was disrespected and overthrown, lawlessness and plunder were the norm, and the nobility was attacked: “A man looks upon his son as an enemy. A man smites his brother (the son of his mother)”. Craftsmanship has become degraded: “No craftsmen work, the enemies of the land have spoilt its crafts”. There is rebellion against the Uraeus or Re. “A few lawless men have ventured to despoil the land of the kingship”. It appears that the foundations of Traditional society, god, monarch, family and land, have been caste asunder. Further, “Asiatics” have seized the land from the ancestral occupiers, and have so insinuated themselves into the Egyptian culture that one can no longer tell who is Egyptian and who is alien: “There are no Egyptians anywhere”. “Women are lacking and no children are conceived”. Evidently there is a population crisis; that perennial symptom of decay. The political and administrative structure has collapsed, with “no officers in their place”. The laws are trampled on and cast aside. “Serfs become lords of serfs”. The writings of the scribes are destroyed. 
Ipuwer avers to Egypt having gone through such epochs, alluding to his saying nothing other than what others have said before his time.
Caucasoid mtDNA sequences are at frequencies of 96% in Moroccan Berbers, 82% in Algerian Berbers and 78% in non-Berber Moroccans. The study of Esteban et al found that Moroccan Northern and Southern Berbers have only 3% to 1% Sub-Saharan mtDNA. Although difficult to define, since “Berber” is a Roman, not an indigenous term, the estimate for present day Morocco is 35% to 45% Berber, with the rest being Berber-Arab mixture. The primary point is that the Moroccan civilisation had ruling classes, whether pre-Islamic or Islamic, that remained predominantly Berber-Caucasian for most of its history, whether during its epochs of glory or of decline. Miscegenation does not account for the fall of the Moorish Civilisation. 
Ibn Khaldun begins from the organic character of the noble family in describing the analogous nature of cultural rise and fall, caused by a falling away of the original creative ethos with each successive generation:
Contrary to the beliefs of certain racial ideologues, including extreme Zionists and ultra-Orthodox Jews, this survival is not the result of bans on miscegenation. The Jewish law as embodied in the Torah, the first five books of the Old Testament, is based not on zoological race but on a race mythos. The Mosaic Law demands “race purity” in the Traditionalist sense; that of a community of belief in a heritage and a destiny. 
Le Premier ministre de Hongrie, Victor Orban, avait déjà souligné la responsabilité de Soros, quand il a favorisé la crise migratoire du Proche-Orient afin de faire couler l’Europe [
To be clear, there is not anything wrong with Iran trading with Unipolar countries, but if the trade and economic ties are designed for regime change operations like weakening the economic power of Multipolar Iranian forces, especially the IRGC as its seems, then that is a strategic threat and should be re-considered. There is growing evidence that the Rouhani government is bent on weakening the IRGC's economic power and Chinese companies' influence in Iran. The Western companies and NGOs that are going into Iran appear to be part of this strategy, which I call ''keep the IRGC economic power down" and the "Chinese/Russian companies out". 
Le géographe Pausanias au second siècle de notre ère se rapproche un peu plus de la vérité quand il dit : "Quant aux fils dont les Sères font leurs vêtements, ils ne proviennent pas d'une écorce, mais ils ont une origine différente que voici. Il existe dans leur pays un petit animal, que les Grecs appellent ser, mais auquel les Sères eux-mêmes donnent un autre nom ; la grandeur de cet animal est double de celle du grand scarabée ; pour le reste, il ressemble aux araignées qui font leurs toiles sur les arbres, et il a huit pattes comme les araignées. Les Sères élèvent ces animaux en leur construisant des cages appropriées à la température de l'hiver et de l'été ; et le travail de ces animaux est une fine trame qui se trouve autour de leurs pattes". Nous sommes loin encore du secret révélé. Pour pouvoir produire de la soie, il faut pouvoir maîtriser toute une série de techniques dont les bases : sélectionner et cultiver le mûrier blanc, reconnaître le Bombyx mori, savoir l'élever et pour cela disposer de lieux humides à température constante entre 20 et 25°, protéger le vers pendant qu'il file son cocon, conserver un certains nombre de ceux ci pour la reproduction, étouffer la chrysalide avant qu'elle n'ait percé le cocon (sinon ceux-ci peuvent être cardés et donner l'équivalent de la soie sauvage), et, bien sur, dévider sans le rompre le fil qui peu mesurer entre 900 et 1200 mètres.
Pour conserver leur monopole les Perses étaient disposés à payer le prix fort et à acheter tout ce qui était à vendre dans tous les lieux qu'ils pouvaient atteindre. La seconde partie se joue avec le représentant d'un peuple nouvellement venu sur la scène internationale : les Sogdiens. C'est un peuple de marchands qui se répandront de la mer de Chine à Byzance en de nombreux comptoirs ou même simples communautés commerçantes installées dans des cités du bout du monde. Comme le dit la chronique officielle des Tang : "Les gens du pays de Sogdiane sont tous d'habiles commerçants ; partout où l'on peut faire du profit ils sont allés". Ils se sont fixés à l'Est de l'Oxus la mythique ville de Samarcande est leur capitale. A l'époque c'est un centre important où se croisent des commerçants et voyageurs venus du monde entiers. La fresque des ambassadeurs qui est exposé au Musée d'Afrasyab-Samarcande montre des Chinois, des Persans, des Coréens, etc.. et il ne faut pas beaucoup d'imagination pour deviner que parmi eux se glissaient des espions et des aventuriers de toutes sortes. Ils ont d'abord essayé de vendre la soie du Khotan aux Perses qui pour montrer leur mépris la brûlent. Dépités, ils sont allés voir les Byzantins. On a même conservé le nom de l'ambassadeur marchand qui est arrivé à la cour de Justinien (482-465), un certain Maniakh qui réussit au bout de son entreprise à ouvrir une route de la soie en évitant l'Empire sassanide.
Au XIIe siècle seulement le roi normand Roger II établit en Sicile une industrie de sériciculture ; un siècle plus tard, les tisserands s'installeront en Italie et en Espagne, en attendant la France et l'Angleterre : l'Europe est enfin en mesure de fabriquer le tissu dont elle rêve depuis longtemps. Le plus long secret de l'histoire a été gardé quatre millénaires.
Bougainville au cours de son tour du monde, est déporté par la mousson entre les Malouines et l'Inde. La mer le contraint à chercher refuge aux Moluques. Il résume le système de spécialisation des îles." Par ce moyen, tandis que la cannelle ne se récolte que sur Ceylan, les îles Banda ont été seules consacrées à la culture de la muscade ; Amboine et Uleaster qui y touche à la culture du gérofle sans qu'il soit permis d'avoir du gérofle à Banda ni de la muscade à Amboine. Ces dépôts en fournissent au-delà de la consommation du monde entier. Les autres postes des Hollandais dans les Moluques ont pour objet d'empêcher les autres nations de s'y établir, de faire des recherches continuelles pour découvrir et brûler les arbres d'épicerie et de fournir à la subsistance des seules îles où on les cultive."
Zheng made, at least, seven incredible voyages, between 1405 and 1423, around the southern Pacific, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf and the coasts of Africa. With his expeditions he opened the doors of the empire to other cultural realities and also to other commercial possibilities. On March 5th of 1421 he set sail from the Nanking port to make his seventh trip with a fleet composed of six-hundred junks and thirty-thousand crew members. These expeditions were commercial and scientific, and the squads mapped Africa and Asia, being it highly probable that they circumnavigated, for the first time, the entire globe and, thus, discovered America. On the return trip from that seventh voyage, an erroneous geo-political Chinese decision made that new knowledge never turn into a conquest. In 1424, the Emperor – convinced by the members of the court that the Admiral’s trips took away more than they brought back to the imperial coffers - decided to suspend the naval expeditions.
The Ming Emperor, in 1424, decided to abandon the naval expeditions, and thus, the indisputable dominion of all the oceans, the discovery and the conquest of new lands. The Chinese decision of abandoning the naval expeditions left, in a sense, an emptiness of power that was filled by Europe.
Pour le dire en quelques mots simples, la Russie actuelle cherche à retrouver la cohérence du règne d’Alexandre II, qui avait tiré les conclusions de la Guerre de Crimée lorsqu’il avait accédé au trône à 37 ans, en 1855, alors que cette guerre n’était pas encore terminée. La Russie de Poutine et de Lavrov rejette en fait les facteurs, toujours présents, toujours activables, des fragilités russes du temps de Nicolas II et de la présidence d’Eltsine, période de la fin du XXe siècle que les Russes assimilent à une nouvelle « Smuta », soit à une époque de déliquescence au début du XVIIe siècle. L’idée de « smuta », de déchéance politique totale, est une hantise des Russes et des Chinois (leur XIXe siècle, après les guerres de l’opium) : pour les Européens de l’Ouest, la « smuta » première, c’est l’époque des « rois fainéants », des mérovingiens tardifs et les historiens, dans un avenir proche, considèreront sans nul doute l’Europe des Hollande, Merkel, Juncker, etc., comme une Europe affligée d’une « smuta » dont les générations futures auront profondément honte. 
Comme le danger allemand devient aux yeux des Britannique plus préoccupant que le danger russe, -parce que la nouvelle puissance industrielle germanique risque de débouler dans l’Egée et en Egypte grâce à son alliance avec l’Empire ottoman moribond- l’Empire de Nicolas II est attiré dans l’alliance franco-anglaise, dans l’Entente, à partir de 1904. Stolypine, partisan et artisan d’une modernisation de la société russe pour faire face aux nouveaux défis planétaires, aurait sans doute déconstruit progressivement et habilement le corset qu’impliquait cette alliance, au nom d’un pacifisme de bon aloi, mais il est assassiné par un fanatique social-révolutionnaire en 1911 (les spéculations sont ouvertes : qui a armé le bras de ce tueur fou ?). Stolypine, qui aurait pu, comme Jaurès, être un frein aux multiples bellicismes qui animaient la scène européenne avant la Grande Guerre, disparaît du monde politique sans avoir pu parachever son œuvre de redressement et de modernisation. La voie est libre pour les bellicistes russes qui joindront leurs efforts à ceux de France et d’Angleterre. Ce qui fait dire à quelques observateurs actuels que Poutine est en somme un Stolypine qui a réussi. 
Washington consolidait ainsi son hégémonisme planétaire et unipolaire : De Gaulle était mort, l’Allemagne et l’Europe toujours divisées, les stratégistes américains planifiaient déjà la chute du Shah, coupable d’avoir soutenu les revendications des pays producteurs de pétrole et de développer une puissance régionale sérieuse, appuyée par des forces aériennes et navales efficaces, dans une zone hautement stratégique. Pour le monde musulman, 1979, année de la prise du pouvoir par Khomeiny, appuyé par les services américains, britanniques et israéliens dans un premier temps, sera l’année-charnière car, dès ce moment, il sera travaillé par des forces hostiles à l’ordre du monde de type « westphalien », ce qui nous conduira au chaos non maîtrisable que nous connaissons aujourd’hui. Avec ce désordre anti-westphalien sur son flanc sud, Poutine cherche tout simplement un pôle de stabilité alternative, permettant un développement normal de la Fédération de Russie dans un cadre impérial cohérent, combinant in fine les acquis d’Alexandre II -qui avait déclenché le « Grand Jeu »- et la sécurité stratégique obtenue par l’URSS après la seconde guerre mondiale et surtout à l’époque entre 1949 et 1972, quand la Chine ne dépendait en aucune façon des Etats-Unis et de leurs alliances sur les rimlands d’Eurasie. Cette sécurité, offrant la stabilité, doit aussi se refléter sur les plans religieux et idéologique : la pluralité des confessions ou des approches idéologiques ou, encore, des politiques économiques, ne doit pas nécessairement provoquer des dynamiques centrifuges. Au-delà de tous les clivages établis par l’histoire sur la masse continentale centre-asiatique, la politique générale doit être convergente et ne plus admettre les divergences qui conduisent inexorablement à une « smuta ». Cette volonté de convergence devrait valoir aussi pour l’Europe, au sens le plus strict du terme : cette idée était déjà présente chez le Tsar Alexandre I qui, après les troubles de l’ère révolutionnaire et napoléonienne, avait envisagé une convergence religieuse en Europe, une fusion de l’orthodoxie, du catholicisme et du protestantisme, pour consolider la première ébauche d’union eurasienne qu’était la Sainte-Alliance. 
Si la submersion de l’Allemagne a pour but essentiel de briser les potentialités immenses d’un tandem germano-russe, elle vise aussi, bien sûr, à ruiner les bonnes relations économiques entre l’Allemagne et la Chine, d’autant plus que les chemins de fer allemands, la Deutsche Bundesbahn, sont partie prenante dans la construction des voies de trains à grande vitesse entre Hambourg et Shanghai. L’Allemagne et, partant, les pays du Benelux, sont fortement dépendants du commerce avec la Chine. Le but de l’hegemon est donc de briser à tout prix ces synergies et ces convergences. Affirmer cela n’est pas l’expression d’un complotisme découlant d’une mentalité obsidionale mais bel et bien un constat, tiré d’une analyse de l’histoire contemporaine : la réalisation du Transsibérien russe sous l’impulsion du ministre Witte a entraîné la théorisation et la mise en pratique de la stratégie de l’endiguement par Halford John Mackinder d’abord, par son disciple hollando-américain Nicholas Spykman ensuite. Sans Mackinder et Spykman, les Etats-Unis n’auraient sans doute jamais élaboré leur géostratégie planétaire visant à rassembler des alliances hétéroclites, parfois composées d’ennemis héréditaires, sur les franges du grand continent eurasien, avec l’OTAN de l’Islande à la frontière perse, le CENTO du Bosphore à l’Indus et l’OTASE en Asie du Sud-Est. 
La « Doctrine de Monroe » est donc un rejet de l’Europe et des vieilles civilisations qu’elle représentait, de même qu’un rejet malsain et pervers de toute civilisation ancienne, quelle qu’elle soit, et, surtout, de toute grande profondeur temporelle : là, les délires puritains des sectes protestantes farfelues hostiles à la culture classique gréco-latine de l’Europe catholique ou même anglicane-élisabéthaine, rejoignait les folies de certains avatars incontrôlés de l’idéologie des Lumières. La conjonction de ces deux formes de folie et de nuisance idéologique, qui sévit toujours aujourd’hui, génère un fantasme criminel de destruction systématique d’acquis positifs et de legs historiques. 
Ma démonstration, ici, que j’annonçais d’emblée « succincte » et incomplète, ne peut donc prétendre à l’exhaustivité. Mais elle ne saurait omettre d’évoquer l’Inde dans ce survol des convergences eurasiatiques. Depuis son indépendance en 1947, l’Inde est traditionnellement alliée à la Russie, hostile à la Chine, contre laquelle elle a mené une guerre sur les hauteurs de l’Himalaya. La volonté de convergence eurasiatique s’occupe de gommer ce conflit. Les régions himalayennes contestées permettraient, une fois pacifiées, un passage entre l’Inde et les territoires anciennement soviétiques et entre l’Inde et la Chine. L’affaire se corse parce que la Chine, du temps de son conflit avec l’Inde, avait soutenu le Pakistan pour obtenir un port sur l’Océan Indien et des voies de communications entre ces installations portuaires avec la région chinoise de Kachgar, via le tracé en montagne dit de « Karakoroum », partant d’Islamabad pour rejoindre le poste-frontière d’Aliabad au Cachemire. Le gros problème est que l’Inde revendique cette partie du Cachemire pour avoir un lien avec le Tadjikistan ex-soviétique. Par ailleurs, comme le soulignent deux historiens insignes des faits indiens, le Britannique Ian Morris et l’Indien Pankaj Mishra, l’Inde souhaite consolider la cohésion du commerce entre le Golfe et la Mer Rouge d’une part, le Golfe du Bengale et les eaux de l’Asie du Sud-Est, d’autre part. L’objectif géopolitique de l’Inde est d’affirmer sa présence dans l’Océan Indien, surtout dans l’archipel d’Andaman et dans les Iles Nicobar, face aux côtes thaïlandaises. Cette volonté entend créer un chapelet de relais entre la Mer Rouge et l’Insulinde, le même que celui voulu par la Chine, qui le prolongerait jusqu’à ses propres ports du Pacifique, ce qui explique le conflit actuel pour les îles et îlots, naturels ou artificiels, dans la Mer de Chine du Sud. La consolidation de ce chapelet de relais maritimes, sans possibilité de le couper ou de le fragmenter, rendrait à l’ensemble des Etats d’Eurasie une autonomie commerciale et navale sur son flanc sud, tandis que la Russie rétablirait les communications par l’Arctique, de Hambourg au Japon. Une Egypte militaire, débarrassée du danger que représentent les Frères musulmans et les autres adversaires des syncrétismes féconds, ouvrirait, par Suez, l’espace méditerranéen au commerce eurasien, réalisant du même coup le vœu des Génois et des Vénitiens de notre moyen-âge, tout en isolant la Turquie, du moins si cette dernière entend encore jouer le rôle d’un verrou et non pas d’un pont, comme le souhaitent les Chinois qui leur proposent la construction, entre l’Iran et l’Egée, d’un chemin de fer les liant tout à la fois à l’Asie et à l’Europe. Erdogan se trouve devant un choix : abandonner les « otâneries » et les sottises fondamentalistes ou renouer avec un laïcisme et un syncrétisme turcs qui n’apporteraient que des bienfaits. 
Pues el hombre separado, sin unidad activa la dualidad, el árbol del bien y el mal y la alternancia entre la paz y la guerra se convierte en el reflejo extremo de la danza en la que el universo manifestado reescribe en cada instante su equilibrio.
La polisemia de la palabra yihad, comprende otros dos tipos de esfuerzo menores, además del interno que es el Esfuerzo Mayor -el único que es santo- (el esfuerzo por mejorar la calidad de vida en la sociedad, esfuerzo en el campo de batalla en defensa propia, o luchar en contra de la tiranía y la opresión). El Islam fundamentalista, que por lo tanto no es Islam, pues no es equilibrado, ha ido desposeyendo y distorsionando este sentido interior y se ha quedado con una interpretación sesgada del esfuerzo menor para justificar religiosamente sus afanes políticos y dinerarios, de nuevo el pecado (error de tiro) de usar en Nombre de Dios en vano.
Dumont, nato a Salonicco nel 1911, si trasfersce successivamente in Francia, dove negli anni giovanili militerà nel Partito Comunista Francese, occupandosi delle varie sollecitazioni innovatrici della vivace realtà politica parigina. Presto si interessa di etnologia al punto di frequentare i corsi di Marcel Mauss al College de France, contro la volontà dei suoi genitori che lo avrebbero voluto ingegnere. Arruolato nell’esercito francese durante il secondo conflitto mondiale e finito prigioniero in un campo di detenzione tedesco, Dumont nel dopoguerra continua ad approfondire i suoi studi. Nel 1949 fa il suo primo viaggio in India, dove tornerà periodicamente per tutto il corso della sua vita. A partire dal confronto con l’India, comincia a sviluppare la dicotomia fondamentale tra l’Homo Aequalis, tipico dell’Occidente moderno, e l’Homo Hierarchicus. Proprio attorno a questa tematica, Dumont struttura alcuni dei suoi saggi più importanti e riconosciuti (si segnalano in particolare “La civiltà indiana e noi” del 1964 e “Homo Hierarchicus, saggio sul sistema delle caste” del 1966). Svincolando la sua analisi dal pregiudizio secondo il quale la società individualistica rappresenterebbe l’apice di un progresso (da leggere in contrapposizione alla barbarie di un sistema arcaico come quello delle caste), Dumont concentra la sua attenzione su uno dei testi più importanti della tradizione induista: il Sanathana Dharma.
Si comprende bene come un tale individualismo si ponga agli antipodi con la concezione olistica/tradizionale: questo non vuol banalmente significare che in passato la totalità delle persone fosse altruista, ma che la comunità viveva coesa attorno a dei valori universalmente riconosciuti. Nell’induismo, per esempio, non esiste l’idea che per essere felici bisogna gratificare il proprio ego, ma vige, piuttosto, il pensiero per cui ognuno debba scoprire il ruolo assegnatogli dal destino e vivere in armonia con esso e ciò che si ha intorno: ciò che gratifica veramente l’esistenza della persona è insomma trovare il proprio posto all’interno della comunità, non emanciparsi da essa. L’individuo induista si concepisce infatti come parte del cosmo e non come un atomo portatore di valori naturali, privo di interdipendenza. Lo stesso asceta che si allontana dalla società non lo fa in nome di un ripiegamento individualista: si tratta piuttosto dell’aspirazione ad una realizzazione metafisico-cosmica superiore a quella basata su una vita comunitaria, ma in cui trionfa sempre lo stesso spirito olistico (non si mette in discussione il valore della comunità in quanto tale), distinto sia dall’individualismo extramondano sia da quello mondano.
Inscrite dans le sacré, l’organisation sociale indienne se fonde sur une stricte idéologie de l’inégalité des hommes, reflet d’une réalité naturelle. Le statut des êtres à leur naissance est le reflet de leurs actions pendant leurs vies antérieures et de leur karma. La société indienne est quadripartite : les brahmanes (prêtres) occupent le haut de la société, suivis par les kshatriyas (guerriers) puis les vaishyas (force productrice) et enfin au bas de l’échelle sociale les sudras, les dalits ou les tribus (plus connus sous l’appellation d’intouchables). Ces derniers sont estimés être particulièrement impurs, parce qu’exerçant des métiers dégradants, souvent en relation avec la mort et le sang (métiers du cuir, bouchers, chasseurs, pêcheurs, etc.). Les jatis sont des compartimentations quasi-étanches, les mariages sont endogamiques : l’infraction à cette règle est motif à des violences physiques et d’exclusion : une quasi-mort sociale dans une société où le poids de la famille, source de protection affective et de soutien et d’entraide matériels, est prépondérant.
