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dimanche, 26 octobre 2014

JAPON : LA LÉGITIME DÉSOBÉISSANCE DES 47 RÔNINS

JAPON : LA LÉGITIME DÉSOBÉISSANCE DES 47 RÔNINS - « Ce qu’ils ont fait de leur vivant résonne pour l'éternité.... »
JAPON : LA LÉGITIME DÉSOBÉISSANCE DES 47 RÔNINS
 
«Ce qu’ils ont fait de leur vivant résonne pour l'éternité....»

Rémy Valat
Ex: http://metamag.fr
 
L’histoire des 47 rônins dépasse le cadre d’une simple affaire de droit féodal : ce serait l’engagement de vassaux, fidèles à leur maître jusqu’au sacrifice de leurs vies. Le drame se déroule au début du XVIIIe siècle, période durant laquelle le Japon est réunifié et pacifié sous l’égide du Shôgun. Le port et l’usage des armes sont contrôlés ; il est l’apanage quasi-exclusif des samouraïs. Les samouraïs sont ceux qui « servent » (étymologie du nom vient du verbe « servir », saburaû) leurs maîtres, le Shôgun et le pays. Ils sont pour cela présentés comme des « modèles » pour la société : à la fois guerriers et administrateurs, leur éducation et l’étiquette qui régit leur vie sont rigides.

En 1701, deux Daimyos (seigneurs en charge d’une province et en relation directe avec le Shôgun) sont chargés d’organiser une cérémonie en l’honneur de l’Empereur. Asano Naganori du fief d'Akō (province de Harima) commet l’impair de blesser le maître des cérémonies, Kira Kōzuke-no-Suke-Yoshinaka (14 mars). Ce dernier est dépeint comme un être corrompu jusqu’à la mœlle et se serait, selon la tradition populaire, montré arrogant et méprisant envers ces deux seigneurs, insuffisamment généreux à son goût à rémunérer son talent et ses services. Perte du contrôle de soi, agression à main armée sur un haut fonctionnaire de l’ État : Asano doit, sur l’ordre du Shôgun Tokugawa Tsuyanoshi (1646-1709), procéder le jour même au suicide rituel (seppuku). Ōishi Kuranosuke Yoshio, principal conseiller de la famille d'Asano prend aussitôt en main la sécurité des membres et des biens du clan menacés de confiscation et mûrit un plan de vengeance. Les différents récits et le florès d’interprétations théâtrales ou cinématographiques sur les conditions des préparatifs clandestins et de l’assaut final ont, certes été enjolivés et idéalisés, mais quel souffle à la lecture de ce récit ! La mise en scène la plus connue, popularisée par le théâtre kabuki, est l’ œuvre principale de Takeda Izumo (1748). Il existe une traduction française de l’épopée des 47 rônins, traduite par George Soulié de Morant en 1927, et rééditée régulièrement. Nous y puisons cet extrait, révélateur de l’esprit idéal du guerrier japonais.

 
Ōishi vient de rassembler le clan, 300 guerriers stupéfaits par l’annonce de la mort de leur seigneur et dans l’attente d’instructions : « Venger notre seigneur, voilà notre devoir. Ce que je propose, le voici. Nous allons jurer de ne reculer devant aucun danger pour tuer Kira et sa famille. Si nous n’avons pas réussi dans un an, c’est que l’entreprise est impossible. Nous nous réunirons alors devant la porte de la forteresse, ceux du moins qui auront survécu aux combats et nous nous donnerons la mort, montrant à tous notre fidélité. [...] Je vais préparer un serment écrit avec notre sang. Revenez tous ici demain, à l’heure du Tigre, pour le signer. Pour aujourd’hui, nous allons nous partager le trésor du clan : il ne faut pas qu’il tombe aux mains de nos ennemis.»
 
[La séance terminée chaque samouraï reçoit 20 lingots d’or et l’assemblée se disperse. Le lendemain, seuls 63 rônins répondirent à l’appel et Ōishi de déclarer :]  « Les épreuves que nous allons subir sont telles qu’une âme ordinaire ne saurait les supporter sans défaillir. En reconnaissant eux-mêmes leur faiblesse, ils m’ont évité le plus difficile des choix : c’est bien. Pour vanner le blé, il suffit de le laisser tomber au souffle de la brise. Le bon grain s’entasse d’un côté, la balle et les fétus de l’autre. [Puis, les loyaux samouraïs signèrent de leur sang le serment scellant leur sort pour l’éternité]. » 

Ce geste symbolique et sacré revêt surtout une dimension politique : c’est aussi un acte de désobéissance. Cet engagement solennel n’est pas sans rappeler les contrats d’ikki : les ikki sont ces révoltes populaires conduites pour réparer une injustice commise par les autorités ou un seigneur, insurrections parfois organisées par des guerriers pour se faire justice eux-mêmes ; ces derniers étant trop fiers pour laisser le règlement de leurs différends entre les mains des pouvoirs publics, fussent-ils le gouvernement du Shôgun (lire sur ce sujet : Katsumata Shizuo, Ikki. Coalitions, ligues et révoltes dans le Japon d’autrefois, traduction parue aux éditions du CNRS en 2011).
 
La maison de Kira est prise d’assaut le matin du 14 décembre 1702 : le maître et les hommes des des lieux seront passés au fil de l’épée. Les rônins emportèrent la tête de Kira sur la tombe de leur seigneur au temple de Sengaku-ji. Les survivants offrirent leur reddition au Shôgun et mettent celui-ci dans l’embarras. Car si la vendetta été légitime sur le fond et respectueuse des règles et de la coutume du Bushidō, elle ne l’était plus sur la forme : les Sainte Vehme étaient prohibées par le shôgunat, le pouvoir rappelle que le droit de faire justice est une prérogative régalienne dans un pays récemment unifié. Le shôgun les fît condamner à mort tout en leur offrant une fin honorable. Le 4 février 1703, 46 rônins (le 47e , le plus jeune, aurait fait l’objet de la clémence des juges selon la tradition populaire) se donnent la mort par éventration, et selon leurs vœux, leurs corps reposent auprès de celui de leur maître au cimetière du temple de Sengaku-ji.

Les témoignages historiques dépeignent différemment les motivations de ces samouraïs : le seigneur Asano n’était guère apprécié par ses serviteurs, et ce serait 58 guerriers (sur les 308 du clan) qui auraient prêté serment, non pas par simple esprit de vengeance, mais par réprobation du traitement injuste réservé à Asano par le Shôgun. Ce dernier aurait dû sanctionner les deux parties, d’autant qu’il y eut un précédent survenu en 1684. Un guerrier, selon l’historien Nakayama Mikio, en aurait blessé un autre en ce même lieu. Le premier aurait été tué sur le champ par un maître-officier du gouvernement et le second exilé. Enfin, seuls les criminels étaient exécutés ou contraints de se suicider à l’extérieur de leur maison. Les conditions du suicide d’Asano ont été considérées comme un acte infamant. C’est pour ces motifs que les rônins ont souhaité laver l’affront fait à leur maître et à leur maison.
 
Cette froide et habile, vengeance a été vivement critiquée par Yamamoto Tsunetomo (l’auteur du Hagakure) qui estimait plus conforme au code de l’honneur un règlement rapide du contentieux. Yamamoto Tsunetomo, fidèle serviteur du Shôgun, mît peut-être en avant ce point de la coutume pour discréditer Ōishi et ses hommes qui n’auraient techniquement pas pu mettre au point leur riposte en de si brefs délais, au moment où Kira se trouvait sur ses gardes et bien protégé par ses hommes (rappelons que c’est par respect envers la réglementation shogunale que Yamamoto Tsunetomo ne put accompagner son seigneur dans la mort : le suicide par accompagnement lui a été formellement interdit). Le Shôgun a commis une maladresse, en ce sens qu’au Japon, les suicides rituels avaient pour but de limiter les vendettas : l’honneur des familles lavé, les désirs de vengeance devaient être étouffés et dans le cas de leur mise à exécution, celle-ci était sévèrement sanctionnée. C’est le contraire qui, dans cet affaire, s’est produit.

Cette histoire eut un retentissement immédiat. Si les Japonais du début du deuxième siècle du Shôgunat y ont trouvé un exutoire à la rigidité du régime (surtout en matière de mœurs), le succès intemporel de ce drame tient à son authenticité. Les Japonais sont peu-être plus sensibles que d’autres peuples à l’engagement et au don de soi. Les paroles n’ont de valeur à leurs yeux que si elles sont suivis par un acte sincère. Quelque puisse être les motivations de ces rônins, c’est bien un sentiment positif, l’esprit de justice, qui les animait. Leur désobéissance était légitime et ils ont agi en pleine connaissance du sort qui leur était réservé. Ils ont préféré mourir dans l’honneur que de vivre dans la honte dans une société, et c’est encore le cas aujourd’hui au Japon, où pèse lourdement le regard des autres. Un geste tragique de refus et de liberté qui résonne pour l’éternité, comme l’atteste les témoignages de respect et de dévotion encore porté par les Japonais sur les tombes des 46 rônins....

Illustration en tête d'article : Ancien château d’Edo (actuellement le parc attenant au palais impérial) : emplacement du bâtiment à l’intérieur duquel, Kira Kōzuke-no-Suke-Yoshinaka sera blessé par Asano Naganori le14 mars 1701.©R.Valat

lundi, 06 octobre 2014

Insubmersible Japon...

Insubmersible Japon...

Le troisième numéro de la revue Conflits, dirigée par Pascal Gauchon, et dont le dossier est consacrée au Japon, vient de sortir en kiosque.

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Au sommaire :

ENTRETIEN Martin Motte: La « Jeune École» de la géopolitique Propos recueillis par Pascal Gauchon

PORTRAIT Ahmet Davutoglu, prophète de l'ottomanisme Par Tancrède Josseran

POLÉMIQUE Fêtons Waterloo! Par Pierre Royer

ENJEUX Europe des régions ou Europe contre les régions Par Hadrien Desuin

ENJEUX Un État fantôme dans la Corne de l'Afrique Par Tigrane Yégavian

ENJEUX La route du Grand Nord sera-t-elle ouverte? Par Jean-Marc Huissoud

GRANDE STRATÉGIE La Suède: géopolitique d'une grande petite puissance Par Éric Mousson-Lestang

BATAILLE La Marne. La première bataille des peuples Par Pierre Royer

IDÉES Jean-Baptiste Duroselle Une pensée française Par Thibaut Mardin

SYNTHÈSE Chine, Inde, Russie Par Frédéric Pichon

GRANDE CARTE Chine, Inde, Russie

 

DOSSIER Insubmersible Japon

N'enterrez pas le Japon Par Pascal Gauchon

LE MOT DU PHILOSOPHE Par Fdéric Laupies

L'Archipel face au monde Par Jean-Marie Bouissou

Le pays qui ne fait pas (vraiment) repentance Par Thierry Buron

Soft Power Defense Par le Vice-Amiral Fumio Ota

Japon: une armée comme les autres? Par Guibourg Delamotte

Un pays entouré d'ennemis? Par Michel Nazet

Les Abenomics, une thérapie de choc pour le Japon? Par Cédric Tellenne

Le pays où le vieillissement n'est pas une catastrophe Par Julien Damon et Pascal Gauchon

L'identité japonaise au risque de la mondialisation

PAYSAGE Le Kenroku-en, l'âme du Japon de l'envers Par Yves Gervaise

L'HISTOIRE MOT À MOT "Wakon yosaï" Par Pierre Roye

 

* * *

RECENSION Robert D. Kaplan: Le réalisme appuyé sur la géographie Propos recueillis par Christophe Révelllard

ENJEUX Réarmement mondial, désarmement de l'Europe Par John Mackenzie

CHRONIQUES livres/revues/internet/cinéma/tv/jeux

GÉOPO-TOURISME Bruxelles, capitale de quoi? Par Thierry Buron

jeudi, 02 octobre 2014

Japan as an American Client State

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Japan as an American Client State

 

A military ambition and agenda, this provides much activist energy among America’s neoconservatives and their fellow travelers, which include sundry financial and commercial interests. Made up of many parts, like the recently established “Africom” (U.S. Africa Command), the comparable effort to contain/isolate/denigrate the two former communist enemy giants, China and Russia, may be considered a central aim.

It does not add up to a feasible strategy for long-term American interests, but few American initiatives have been so in the recent past. Since neoconservatives, ‘liberal hawks’ and neoliberals appear to have captured the State Department and White House, and their activism has already produced significant geopolitical instability, it would be no luxury to dig deeper in developments on the rather neglected Asian side of the globe.

The protracted overthrow in the course of 2010 of the first cabinet formed by the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) does not at first glance resemble what happened in Kiev on January 22nd 2014 – when Victoria Nuland & Co triggered, aided, and abetted an anti–Russian coup d’état. No snipers were involved. No deaths. No civil war against Japanese citizens who had supported a reformist program. It was a gentle overthrow. But an overthrow it was even so. And, importantly, while the Ukraine case served the elevation by consensus of Russia to being the new number one enemy of ‘the West’, the abrupt end to a new Japanese policy of rapprochement was the start of a fairly successful drive to create common imagery of China as a threat to its neighbors.

Back in September of 2009, Japan underwent a politically momentous change when a new ruling party came to power, thereby ending half a century of what had been in fact a ‘one-party democracy’. As the first serious opposition contender for government, the DPJ had won an overwhelming electoral victory with a strongly reformist manifesto. Its original, and at that time still essential, aim was to push for greater political control over a bureaucracy that is in many crucial ways politically unaccountable.

One of this new government’s first moves was to initiate a new China policy. Its main architect, Ichiro Ozawa, had filled several planes with writers, artists, and politicians to visit China for the specified purpose of improving “people to people and party to party” relations. At the same time, the prime minister of this first cabinet, Yukio Hatoyama, was openly declaring his intention to join other East Asian leaders in the formation of an Asean+3 community, consisting of the existing Asean grouping plus Korea, China and Japan. It is highly unlikely that the now diplomatically ruinous and possibly dangerous Sino-Japanese conflict over the Senkaku/Diyaou islands would have come into being if his cabinet had lasted.

As might have been expected, these unexpected Japanese initiatives created collective heartburn among Washington’s ‘Japan handlers’. Some were quoted by reporters as saying that perhaps they had all along been concerned about the wrong country; that Japan and not China ought to have been the focus of their anxieties.

What the DPJ intended to achieve, the creation of an effective center of political accountability capable of implementing truly new policy changes, did not interest the Japan handlers, and Obama never gave the impression that he had a clue of what was happening, or that it should ever be his concern. Japan’s new prime minister made three or four requests for a meeting with the then new president for a discussion on Asian developments, which would appear perfectly reasonable and even imperative, considering an earlier often repeated epithet for U.S.-Japan relations as being “the world’s most important bilateral relationship”. But while the requests for a one-on-one had gone through the proper diplomatic channels, they drew only a reponse in the form of scathing public remarks by an American official that Hatoyama should not think that he could help settle any domestic problems through a meeting with a very busy American president.

To understand what followed, and to make sense of this ‘regime change’ story, one must know a bit more about the intricacies of the Japanese power system, its odd relationship with that of the United States, and how these two interact. Because neither accord comfortably with models produced by various schools of international relations, and because they do not seem to make sense to media editors, these subjects hardly ever receive serious attention outside a small circle of authors who have made it their specialty.

A cardinal point is the odd division of labor between elected and career officials, which in the half century of formal LDP rule settled into a pattern in which the bureaucrats made policy and used the politicians in high office as brokers to settle turf wars or occasionally to administer a slight prodding to drive policy in a bureaucratically desired direction. One can, of course, find exceptions proving the rule. Those who remember the famous BBC comedy series “Yes Minister” and recognize some of this in their own countries, would still find it hard to believe the extent to which such a division of labor can be normalized.

The second cardinal point is that Japan does not function as an independent sovereign state. To find a proper term for the U.S.-Japan relationship is difficult since there has been nothing quite like it in history. Vassal comes to mind, of course, and client state is a useful characterization. Some would prefer protectorate, but the United States has less say over what goes on inside domestic political and economic Japan than is assumed with protectorates. It is in fact rather amazing to see the extent to which the Japanese elite in business, bureaucracy, and financial circles have maintained an economic system that is radically different from what Americans believe an economic system should look like.

But with respect to foreign relations Japan must toe the line. The unequal arrangement used to come with formidable advantages. Like the Europeans with their Atlanticism, the Japanese have not been required for half a century to produce political leaders capable of thinking strategically and dealing independently with a transforming world. Noticeably less so, even, than has been true for the Europeans. The readiness with which the United States has extended economic favors to Japan, to the detriment of its own global economic position, has been extraordinary. Japan would not have become the industrial power it remains up till today, had the United States not tolerated its structural protectionism, and allowed full-speed one-way expansion of Japanese market shares in the United States to the considerable disadvantage of American domestic industry. I cannot think of any other instance in history in which one large country has had it so easy in its diplomatic and economic interaction with the world, simply by relying on the power, goodwill and strategic calculations of another country, while at the same time itself remaining politically outside the international system. Other countries gradually became used to Japan’s near invisibility on the world diplomatic stage.

This passive comportment in world affairs, which over the years drew plenty of criticism from Washington, was a thorn in the side of quite a few Japanese, and Ozawa with Hatoyama were at the forefront of the political ranks eager to do something about it.

Throughout the Cold War, Washington’s determination to rely on having an obedient outpost close to the shores of the two huge Communist powers did not require much pleading or pushing, because Tokyo had, as a matter of course, decided that it shared this same Communist enemy with Washington. At the same time, the US-Japan Security Treaty did not constitute an alliance of a kind comparable to what, for instance, the member countries of NATO had entered into. To be precise, it was essentially a base lease agreement; one from which there was, for all practical purposes, no exit for Japan. The ‘status of forces agreement’ has not been reviewed since 1960.

The regime change drama can be said to have been prefigured shortly before the August 2009 elections that brought the DPJ to power. In January of that year Hillary Clinton came to Tokyo on her first mission as Obama’s Secretary of State to sign an agreement with the outgoing LDP administration (which knew it was stumbling on its last legs), reiterating what had been agreed on in October 2005 about a highly controversial planned new base for US Marines on Okinawa – a plan hatched by Donald Rumsfeld – which had earlier been forced down the throat of the LDP. The ruling party of the one-party democracy had applied a preferred method of Japanese politics when something embarrassingly awkward comes up: do nothing, and hope everyone will forget it. Clinton made clear that no matter what kind of government the Japanese electorate would choose, there could be no deviation from earlier arrangements. Her choice of American officials to deal with Japan, Kurt Campbell, Kevin Maher, and Wallace Gregson (all ‘alumni’ from the Pentagon) also indicated that she would not tolerate something that in Washington’s mind would register as Japanese backtracking.

This was a moment of great irony. Japan’s new leaders, who were in the process of establishing political control over a heretofore politically almost impenetrable bureaucracy, were now confronted with an American bureaucratic clique that lives a life of its own and was seemingly oblivious to regional developments in which Japan was bound to become less passive and politically isolated. As noted, the Japan handlers under Hillary Clinton came from the military, and an earlier generation of State Department diplomats with Japan experience appeared to have been squeezed out of the picture completely. As would soon become clear, the policymakers of the Obama administration were highly mistrustful of any ideas, never mind actual courses of action, that seemed in any way to alter the status quo in the region. In autumn 2009 US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates arrived to rub it in some more that Washington would not accept independent Japanese action, or anything that deviated from how the LDP had always handled things. To make that point clear he refused to attend the customary banquet organized in his honor.

Senior editors of Japan’s huge daily newspapers, who in normal unison do more than anyone to create political reality in the country, as well as senior bureaucrats with whom these editors normally cooperate, were ambivalent. One of the editors asked me at the time how long I thought the new government would have to accomplish something he compared to the difficulties faced by the Meiji reformers some 140 years earlier. I answered that it would be up to him and his colleagues. Even while experienced older bureaucrats were aware of the need for drastic institutional renewal, they were not happy with the new or adjusted priorities of their new putative political overseers. This became a particularly poignant issue with regard to relations across the Pacific.

Much of the international Japan coverage at that time was done out of Washington with journalists interviewing the Japan handlers, since the body of regular American correspondents in Tokyo had dwindled to a very few who permanently resided there. Like we have just seen happen with the coverage of the Ukraine crisis in European media, Japan’s newspapers were beginning to reflect the reality as created by American editors. Which meant that before long the large domestic newspapers were adopting the line that prime minister Hatoyama was undermining the U.S.-Japan relationship. At the same time veterans from the LDP, the ‘ruling party’ of the one-party democracy party that had been decisively defeated in the summer of 2009, were briefing their old political friends in Washington about the obvious inexperience and alleged incompetence of the new incumbents. By these means the story about a politically new Japan led to the propaganda line that Prime Minister Hatoyama was mishandling the crucial US-Japan relationship. A perfidious role was played by prominent Japanologists in American academia who appeared to overlook the importance of what Japan’s reformist politicians were attempting to achieve.

It is difficult to find another instance in which official Washington delivered insults so blatant to a country as to Japan under Hatoyama. Aside from his repeated formal requests for a meeting being ignored, the Japan handlers counseled Obama not to give the Japanese prime minister more than 10 minutes of his time during chance encounters at international meetings. Hillary Clinton put the Japanese Ambassador on the carpet with a reprimand addressed to Hatoyama for “lying” when the Japanese prime minister, after having sat next to her at a banquet in Copenhagen, told the Japanese media afterwards that his conversation with her had been positive. Japanese newspapers could not measure these things with their normal frames of reference, and began to copy a general notion of the Washington-inspired American media that Hatoyama was simply bad for transpacific relations.

It took snipers killing some hundred protesters and policemen to end the elected government in Kiev, as neonazis, ambitious oligarchs and thugs used that opportunity to hijack a revolutionary movement. On the other side of the Eurasian continent it took a clueless and cooperative Japanese media and a frustrated bureaucracy, already used to sabotaging DPJ wishes, to end the first cabinet of this reformist party, and with that bring an end to a genuinely different Japanese foreign policy inspired by a reassessment of long-term Japanese interests. Hatoyama did not have to flee like the elected president in Kiev almost four years later. He eventually simply stepped down. He did so in line with a custom whereby politicians who wish to accomplish something that is generally understood to be controversial and difficult will stake their political future on the outcome. In this case Hatoyama had walked into a trap. He was given to believe that an acceptable compromise solution was being arranged for the problem of the new Marine basis in Okinawa. As he told me himself about half a year later, with that he made the biggest mistake in his political life.

This is not how the newspapers have reported on it, and not how it has entered commonly understood recent history, but let this sink in: Washington managed, without the use of violence, to manipulate the Japanese political system into discarding a reformist cabinet. The party that had intended to begin clearing up dysfunctional political habits that had evolved over half a century of one-party rule lost its balance and bearings, and never recovered. Hatoyama’s successor, Kan Naoto, did not want the same thing happening to him, and distantiated himself from the foreign policy reformists, and his successor in turn, Yoshihiko Noda, helped realign Japan’s bureaucracy precisely to that of the United States where roughly it had been for half a century. By calling for an unnecessary election, which everyone knew the DPJ would lose, he brought the American-blessed LDP back to power to have Japan slide back into its normal client state condition, essentially answerable, even if only tacitly, to Washington’s wishes.

Where earlier a China policy of friendly relations was being forged, there was suddenly nothing. A political vacuum is ideal space for political mischief and Japan’s veteran mischief maker is Shintaro Ishihara, generally characterized as a far right politician, whose rise to high position was accelerated and punctuated by publicity stunts. In April 2012, toward the end of his 13 years as governor of Tokyo, he proposed that the metropolis nominally under his charge buy the uninhabited islands in the East China Sea, long the subject of a territorial dispute that was shelved when Japan and China normalized relations. Beijing took that opportunity to organize vehement anti–Japanese demonstrations, and relations predictably foundered. It had frequently gone that route before. Hyping anti-Japanese sentiment is a well-tried Chinese method of channeling domestic protest, diverting it from domestic problems which otherwise cause unrest. South Korea has sometimes done the same.

Top diplomats among the Chinese foreign policy officials were understandably incensed when faced with the fact that the rapprochement initiatives by a new government in Tokyo were simply killed off at a command from the United States. As with previous instances of diplomatic stalemate, the Chinese wonder to what extent they are indirectly talking with Washington, when they share a negotiating table with Japanese.

The last DPJ prime minister, Toshihiko Noda, who had forgotten or never understood the reformist origins of his party, subsequently ignored back channel communication from Beijing about how to solve the row without either country losing face. Since then Chinese conduct has been provocative, with Beijing annoying and offending Tokyo purposely through announcements about Chinese airspace and activities in the vicinity of the disputed islands.

If you begin the story about Sino-Japanese relations at that point you could perhaps endorse the current Prime Minister Abe’s vision of China as a significant problem, which he broadcasted to the world during the most recent Davos meeting. Other governments in the region share part of that vision, because Beijing has also been responding to Washington’s anti-Chinese involvement especially with Vietnam and the Philippines, its other neighbors in the Western Pacific.

The resulting anti–Chinese predisposition in the region perfectly suited the ‘pivot’, which has been Hillary Clinton’s program to develop greater muscle to curtail China’s influence. The American military, which maintains bases surrounding all of China’s coast, is not prepared to share power in the the Western Pacific, and Japan plays an important part in all this, even extending to current Prime Minister Abe’s reinterpretation of the famous pacifist clause in Japan’ constitution.

The countries that are part of what used to be called the free world on both sides of the Eurasian continent ought to be better aware of a political reality illustrated by the above details. They add up to a picture of a self-proclaimed order keeper with the right to ignore sovereignty and the right, or even the duty, to set things straight in other countries that just might in future develop a genuine challenge to its own mastery over the planet. On the European side this has been revealed in this year as a powerful brake on further development of economic relations between Russia and the member states of the European Union. On the Asian-Pacific side Japan was becoming a threat to the purposes of the ‘pivot’ toward Asia as it began working for better relations with China. Global diplomacy has gone out of the window in the meantime. Neither European countries nor Japan can, under current circumstances, engage properly with their gigantic neighbors. For a variety of reasons the powers that make a difference in the United States have demonstrated that they are comfortable with a reignited Cold War, this time without communism.

One need not delve deeply in the internet to find unequivocal repetition by American officials in positions of power of what has become known as the ‘Wolfowitz Doctrine’, according to which the United States ought not ever allow rivals to emerge to challenge its global dominance. It does not do diplomacy.

In Europe we can detect a certain degree of subconscious nostalgia for the Cold War. After all, it supplied for almost everyone of my generation, and the one after it, a fairly trustworthy handrail to steady oneself in moments of geopolitical turbulence. We grew up with the political epistemology it created; the source of knowledge about what was ultimately good or bad.

Hence it is easy to sit idly by while an even later and even less worldly-wise generation of politicians at the top responds to the seduction of a power that once represented the good guys, and was the main architect of the relatively peaceful and relatively stable post-World War II international order. It is seductive for Europeans to sit back and allow that power to continue taking the lead. Shared values, and all that sort of thing. How can one argue against such a perspective on planetary political reality today?

Think again. What should be pointed out is that those supposedly superior shared values are a crock of nonsense. But most importantly that full spectrum dominance does not constitute a feasible strategy; it is a dangerous fantasy among institutions that are not supervised by a politically effective coordinating center, hence are not on any leash. What they do is of a dangerous silliness rarely seen in history, at least for such an extended period. When we cheer NATO and its new initiatives for a rapid deployment force to be used potentially against the renewed enemy in Moscow, and when we cheer the supposedly great achievement of the European Union unanimously to endorse sanctions against that same new enemy, when we join the choir denouncing an imagined inherently aggressive China, we are encouraging a bunch of incompetent, politically immature zealots as they trigger chains of events whose likely dire consequences we could not possibly desire.

Karel van Wolferen is a Dutch journalist and retired professor at the University of Amsterdam. His book The Enigma of Japanese Power, first published in 1989, has sold well over 650,000 copies in eleven languages, and he has authored fifteen subsequent books on Japanese politics and society. As a foreign correspondent for NRC Handelsblad , one of Holland’s leading newspapers, he received the highest Dutch award for journalism, and over the years his articles have appeared in The New York Times , The Washington Post , The New Republic , The National Interest , Le Monde , and numerous other newspapers and magazines.

mardi, 23 septembre 2014

Naoko Inose’s Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima

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Naoko Inose’s Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima

By Riki Reipersona

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com

Naoko Inose
Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima [2]
Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2013

Editor’s Note:

This is a review of the Japanese edition of Persona, which is available now in English translation. I have read the translation, which appears to be much longer (864 pages) than the Japanese original. It is a treasure trove of information on Mishima.  As an aside, the book’s unselfconscious frankness about sex and meticulous cataloging of genealogy and rank give one a sense of the consciousness of pre-Christian European society. 

The Japanese version of Persona was originally published in November 1995 by Bungei Shunshu (literally meaning “the Literary Spring and Autumn”), an established and prestigious publishing house in Japan. The author, Mr. Naoki Inose, is a maverick and contentious figure who served as the vice governor of Tokyo municipality for a long time while also being a highly prolific and popular writer, having penned no less than 30 books so far, mostly on political, historical, and cultural themes. He was lately in hot water, being forced to step down from his official post due to alleged involvement in a murky financial scandal. His political and administrative stance, by post-war Japanese standards, is mainstream conservatism (center-Right).

The main body of the book has about 390 pages, including a prologue, four chapters, and an epilogue. There is also a brief postscript and an extensive bibliography which together occupy another nine pages. Considering the length of the book, it is surprising that there are only four chapters. The 17-page Prologue is a novel-like start, the main character of which is a former schoolmate of Yukio Mishima, and whose father also happened to be an old acquaintance and old schoolmate of Mishima’s father Azusa Hiraoka (Hiraoka is the real family name of Mishima), both pursuing the careers of elite imperial government officials, but with quite different fates. The author’s intention in starting the book in this way was to highlight Mishima’s family background so as to shed light on the factors, both familial and historical, that shaped and molded the early development of Mishima’s quite unorthodox and eccentric personality.

Indeed, the author goes far further than most would expect, expatiating on the overall political and social picture of Japan in the late Meiji and early Taisho periods at the very beginning of the 20th century, which, in the author’s presumed reckoning, might better disclose and clarify the political, socio-cultural, and family backdrops of Mishima’s childhood, which was characterized by a mixture of docile and rebellious elements. The first chapter, called “The Mystery of the Assassination of Takashi Hara,” lasts almost 80 pages. Here the author talks about the historical background of the time in which Mishima’s grandfather Sadataro Hiraoka saw his career blossom then wither due to larger and uncontrollable political struggles.

Sadataro was a capable functionary favored and appointed by then the Internal Minister and later the Prime Minister of Japan Takashi Hara, nicknamed the “Commoner Prime Minister,” to be the governor of Karabuto (the Southern half of the Sakhalin Island, ceded to Japan by treaty after the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and forcibly annexed by Soviet Union at the end of WWII). However, due to some suspicious financial dealing and mishaps which were seized by political foes to attack him, and political sectarian conflicts during the Hara administration and after his assassination, Sadataro was relieved of his governorship, and from then on, Mishima’s family’s fortune started to take an abrupt and sharp downturn.

The second chapter, “The Insulated Childhood,” shifts attention from the rise and fall of the Hiraokas to Mishima himself. Mr. Inose spends 90 pages on Mishima’s complex and seeming contradictory childhood, using narration interspersed by flashbacks, and talks about the family life of the Hiraokas, the inter-relationship of family members, religion, Mishima’s grandparents and parents, especially his fastidious and arbitrary grandmother and his bemused father, against the background of decline of the family’s fortunes as a result of political failures of his grandfather. The author devotes large passages to explaining such matters as Mishima’s poor physical health, his tender, timid, and self-isolating personality as a child molded by the uncannily tense family ambience, and his father’s desperate last-ditch effort that brought about his narrow escape from the military draft in his late teen years near the end of the Second World War.

In this chapter, the author also starts to introduce Mishima’s passion for literature, which developed quite early, and his first attempts at writing, as well as his friendship and literary exchanges with several likeminded youths who gave him encouragement and inspiration. One point meriting emphasis is the influence of Zenmei Hasuda, a young imperial army officer, a steadfast traditionalist and nationalist, and a talented writer who killed a senior officer for cursing the Emperor and then committed suicide near the end of the war.

In the third chapter, that lasts almost 100 pages, the author continues to elaborate on the young Mishima’s literary and private life, culminating in his crowning literary achievement, the novel Kinkakuji translated as The Temple of the Golden Pavilion, which the author rightfully perceives as a landmark of the first phase of Mishima’s literary life, which is characterized by richly colored, minutely detailed, and often unsettling depictions of the inner lives of men among the ruins of post-war Japan — a formerly proud nation wallowing in nihilism.

It is noteworthy that Mishima’s works at this stage are rather different from the second stage of his literary activities, in which his works display a clearly nationalist and Rightist perspective. While Mishima’s exquisite writing reached its peak (or near peak) quite early in his life, his understanding of and awakening to the Japanese identity and nationalism centered on the monarchist tradition underwent a gradual process of maturation and was still immature and inchoate at his first literary stage, i.e. the time around his writing of Kinkakuji and other non-nationalist works, in contrast to his second literary phase of more virile, robust, and nationalistic works from Sun and Steel to The Sea of Fertility. In addition, Mishima’s dandyesque personal life of drinking, socializing, and mingling with fashion-conscious rich girls as described in this chapter was also indicative of his less than mature literature and personality at his stage of his life.

yukio-mishimaXXXXWW.jpgChapter four, being the longest of the four chapters at about 110 pages, stands out as a relatively independent account of Mishima’s later years, dealing with both literature and political/ideological developments, leading to his failed coup, featuring his impassioned exhortation to the military servicemen and his ritual suicide by seppuku. This part covers the Mishima most familiar and interesting to Western readers. The chapter covers his body-building practices, his continued literary endeavors, consummated by the masterpiece The Sea of Fertility,his nominations for the Nobel Prize for Literature, and his increasingly active socio-political undertakings, including organizing his private militia troop, the Tatenokai (Shield Society), his serious and strenuous military training in Jieitai (Self-Defense Force), the post-war Japanese military — with the rather naïve aim of safeguarding the Emperor in concerted effort with the military in case of domestic unrest or even sedition at the hands of the leftist or communist radicals — and the events of this final day, November 25, 1970.

Although Persona has an overly long and detailed discussion of Mishima’s family history, the book still flows and proves an engaging read on the whole. The last chapter, though a bit overshadowed by the three preceding chapters, is definitely the most pertinent and fascinating of the whole, filled with interesting facts with insightful and trenchant observations.

Mishima’s veneration of the Emperor (Tenno) and ultimately the Imperial bloodline (Kotoh) of Japan, his candid criticism of Emperor Hirohito, and his final urge toward the coup and the subsequent suicide were already implied in his Kinkakuji, albeit symbolically as the impregnable top floor of the Kinkakuji pavilion itself. These themes became explicit in Voice of the Spirits of Martyrs published in 1966, which especially demonstrates Mishima’s mixed feelings if not overtly bitter resentment of Hirohito for his ignoble role in the failed Ni-Ni-Roku (Feb. 26) Coup of 1936[1] and his abject “I-am-a-human-not-a-god” announcement in 1945.[2] In the book, Mishima speaks through the mouth of a 23-year-old blind man, giving voice to the spirits of the Ni-Ni-Roku rebels and the Kamikaze pilots, i.e., the spirits of martyrs, speaking of the post-war economic boom coupled with the moral decay of Japanese society:

Under the benevolent imperial reign, the society brims with peace and stability. People smile albeit not without conflicts of interest and confusion of friends and foes. Foreign money drives and goads people, and pseudo-humanism becomes a necessity for making a living. The world is shrouded in hypocrisy while physical force and manual labor are despised. Youthful generations feel suffocated by torpor, sloth, drugs, and meaningless fights, yet they all move along the prearranged path of mundanity like meek sheep. People think about making money, even small amounts, for which they degrade their own value. Private cars multiply, whose stupid high speed renders people soulless. Tall buildings mushroom while the righteous cause and moral principles collapse, and the glittering glass windows of those buildings are just like fluorescent lights of implacable desires. Eagles flying high in the sky and break their wings, and the immortal glories are sneered at and derided by termites. In such a time, the Emperor has become a human.[3]

According to Mishima, the daily routines under the rapid economic growth of 1960s is but an ugly and hollow sign of happiness, all attributable to the fact that the Emperor Hirohito has proclaimed himself no longer a divine figure, a sacrosanct “Arahitogami”[4] but a mere human being devoid of sanctity. Mishima expressed this view via the collective voice of the spirits of the martyrs, that the Emperor has assumed a duality of image, one being the last sacred embodiment of the national myth, and the other being one kind smiling grandfather presiding over the economic rationalism of the current age, and it is the latter, the protector of the daily routines of the post-war Japan, that Mishima found intolerable, as the voice of the martyr spirits makes quite clear:

The reign of His Majesty has been dyed in two different colors. The period of the bloody red color ends with the last day of the war, and the period of the ash grey color begins from that day. The period of the authentic red color soaked with blood starts with the day when the utmost sincerity of the brotherly spirits was thrown away, and the period of that pallid grey color starts from the day of the ‘I-am-a-human’ announcement of His Majesty. The immortality of our deaths is thus desecrated.[5]

The “brotherly spirits” here refer to the soldiers of the failed 2.26 coup of 1936, failed by the Emperor Hirohito, by his headstrong refusal to understand and sympathize with their righteous patriotism and pure sincerity. Mishima also believed that the “I-am-a-Human” announcement of Hirohito in the wake of WWII rendered the heroic sacrifices of the lives of the Kamikaze Tokkottai (Special Attack Units) utterly futile and pointless.

According to the author, Mishima’s mother Shizue revealed a little secret about the writing of Voices of the Spirits of Martyrs on the occasion of the commemoration of the seventh anniversary of Mishima’s death, namely, the work was actually written one night. She recollected that Mishima handed the manuscript to her as he had always done and uttered “I wrote this in one stroke last night, and it’s now completed.” She read through it quickly, felt her “blood curdled,” and asked Mishima how he wrote this piece. Mishima answered: “I felt my hand moving naturally and the pen sliding on the paper freely. I simply couldn’t help it even if I wanted to stop my hand. Low voices as if murmuring could be heard across my room in the midnight. The voices seemed to be from a group of men. When I held my breath to listen carefully, I found they were the voices of the dead soldiers who had participated in the 2.26 Incident.” Shizue continued to remark that “I had known the saying about haunting spirits before but didn’t paid attention until that moment when I came to realize that Kimitake (Mishima’s real first name) was perhaps haunted by something, and I felt chills down my spine.”[6]

In the summer of the same year Voices of the Spirits of Martyrs was published, Mishima went to Kumamoto Prefecture on Kyushu Island, South Japan, and this trip would prove to have a decisively catalyzing effect on the consolidation of the nationalist and traditionalist ideology that guided his later literary and political actions, provided the urge for the writing of his final work The Sea of Fertility, and eventually paved the way for his suicide. The pivot of Mishima’s interest was the local Samurai warrior group Shinpuren (The League of Divine Wind) which was violently opposed to the various policies of westernizing reform enacted by the Meiji regime in the 1870s.

The original driving force of the Meiji Restoration was the idea of “Revering the Emperor and Repelling the Foreign Barbarians” (Sonnojoi), which stipulated that legitimacy came not from the Shogun but from the Emperor and that Western forces, epitomized by the dreaded “Black Ships,” must be decisively expelled.[7] Yet after abolishing the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate by uniting around the rallying call of “Sonnojoi,” the newly-established Meiji regime immediately and drastically changed its course and started to purse a policy of reform: opening Japan to the outside world, imitating Western ways, and curbing or eliminating the traditional customs of Japanese society deemed by the new regime as un-Western and uncivilized. New laws were promulgated by the Meiji government: the former Shizoku (Samurai aristocrats) were prohibited from carrying swords in public places, a sacred and unalienable right in their eyes, marking their distinguished status from the masses. They were also forced to change their hairstyles (cutting off the buns at the back of their heads). These were the direct causes to the Insurrection of Shinpuren in 1876 (the ninth year of the Meiji period).

The members of Shinpuren were so thoroughly alienated and infuriated by the Meiji government that they went to comical lengths to reject modernity. For example, when banknotes replaced traditional metal coins, they refused to touch them with their hands, picking them up with chopsticks instead. They made long detours to avoid walking under electrical wires. If no detour was possible, they would cover their heads with a white paper fan and pass hurriedly under the wires. They cast salt on the ground after meeting anyone dressed in western garb. When they decided to revolt against the Meiji government, they insisted on using only traditional bladed weapons like the sword (Katana), spear (Yari), and cane knife (Naginata), instead of the “dirty weapons of the western barbarians.”

This group, consisting of about 170 men, launched a night-time attack on the Kumamoto garrison. The garrison troops were caught off guard and initially panicked. But they regrouped and started to fire volleys of bullets into the armor-wearing, sword-wielding Shinpuren warriors storming at them. The samurai fell one after another, and altogether 123 warriors died in the battle or committed seppuku after sustaining serious wounds, including a dozen 16- or 17-year-old teenagers.

It was indeed a sad and heart-wrenching story. Why were they willing to die to protect their right to carry samurai swords? It is hard to comprehend it by the commonsense of our de-spiritualized modern age. The rebellion was mocked by newspapers in Tokyo as an anachronism even at the time, let alone in post-War Japan. Nevertheless, the Shinpuren samurai believed they were serving the cause of righteousness and justice, and it was their spotless sincerity and combination of faith and action that deeply impressed Mishima. The following passage his comment on Shinpuren in a dialogue with Fusao Hayashi[8]:

Talk about the thoroughness of thinking, when thinking expresses itself in an action, there are bound to be impurities entering it, tactics entering it, and human betrayals entering it. This is the case with the concept of ideology in which ends always seem to justify means. Yet the Shinpuren was an exception to the mode of ends justifying means, for which ends equal means and means equal ends, both following the will of gods, thus being exempt from the contradiction and deviation of means and ends in all political movements. This is equivalent to the relation between content and style in arts. I believe there also lies the most essential, and in a sense the most fanatical sheer experimentation of the Japanese spirit (Yamatodamashii).[9]

As hinted previously, the trip to Kumamoto and the examination of the historical record of Shinpuren gave Mishima a model and meaning for his future suicide. In fact, three years before his suicide he published a piece in the Yomiuri Shinbun, in which he stated rather wistfully the following words: “I think forty-two is an age that is barely in time for being a hero. I went to Kumamoto recently to investigate the Shinpuren and was moved by many facts pertaining to it. Among those I discovered, one that struck me particularly was that one of the leaders of theirs named Harukata Kaya died a heroic death at the same age as I am now. It seems I am now at the ceiling age of being a hero.”[10] From such clues, which are actually numerous, the author argues that Mishima started at about forty to reflection on his own death and probably settled on terminating his own life upon the completion of his four-volume lifework The Sea of Fertility.

The heavy influence of Shinpuren is manifest in the second volume of The Sea of Fertility, namely Runaway Horses, in which the protagonist Isao Iinuma, a Right-wing youth, holds a pamphlet titled The Historical Story of Shinpuren and was depicted as possessing an burning aspiration of “raising a Shinpuren of the Showa age.” And the full content of the aforementioned book was inserted into Runaway Horses in the form of a minor drama within a major drama. The historical background of the novel was set in early 1930s. The 19-year-old Isao attempts to assassinate a man called Kurahara, known as the king fixer of backdoor financial dealing, who was in Mishima’s eyes the representation of Japanese bureaucrats who considered the “stability of currency” as the ultimate happiness of the people and preached a cool-headedly mechanical if not callous way of crafting economic policies. Kurahara was quoted saying, “Economics is not a philanthropy; you’ve got to treat 10% of the population as expendable, whereby the rest 90% will be saved, or the entire 100% will die” — the self-justifying words of a typical ultra-realist and even a nihilist — a stark contrast to the pre-War ideal of the Emperor as an absolute patriarch, a profoundly benevolent feudal ruler who guarded the identity, history, and destiny of the Japanese people — a metaphysical figure that Mishima embraced, held dear, and vowed to defend and revive regardless of cost.

mishimazzzzzz.jpg

In sum, Mishima’s spiritual and historical encounter with Shinpuren and his military training can be viewed as elements in the design of his own death, as steps ascending to the grand stage. Shortly after concluding his military training, Mishima wrote a short book, A Guide to Hagakure, on Jocho Yamamoto’ famous summation of Bushido doctrine, Hagakure. Mishima’s Guide also illuminates his final action:

One needs to learn the value of the martial arts to be pure and noble. If one wants to both live and die with a sense of beauty, one must first strive to fulfill necessary conditions. If one prepares longer, one will decide and act swifter. And though one can choose to perform a decisive action oneself, one cannot always choose the timing of such an action. The timing is made by external factors, is beyond a person’s powers, and falls upon him like a sudden assault. And to live is to prepare for such a fateful moment of being chosen by destiny, isn’t it?! Hagakure means to place stress on a prior awareness and a regulation of the actions for such preparations and for such moments that fate chooses you.[11]

It is exactly in such a fashion that Mishima prepared for and embraced his self-conceived and fate-ordained final moment, to serve a noble, beautiful, and righteous cause.

Notes

1. Emperor Hirohito was angry at the assassinations of his trusted imperial ministers at the hands of the rebel soldiers. He vehemently refused to lend an ear to the sincere patriotic views of the rebels, refused to side with them, and immediately ordered the suppression of the coup and had the leaders tried and executed quickly.

2. Emperor Hirohito made this announcement partly due to the pressure of the US occupation forces, i.e. the GHQ, and partly willingly, as a cooperative gesture if not an overtly eager attempt to ingratiate himself with the conqueror.

3. Naoki Inose, Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima (Tokyo: Bungei Shunshu Press, 1995), p. 323.

4. Meaning literally “a god appearing in human form,” a highly reverential reference to the Japanese Emperor until the end of WWII.

5. Persona, pp. 323, 324.

6. Persona, p. 324.

7. American naval fleets commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry to force Japan to open itself to the world, which first arrived in 1853 and once again in 1854.

8. A famous and highly accomplished literary figure of contemporary Japan who is known for being flamboyant and highly contentious writer and literary critic. As a young man, he was a Leftist, he turned toward the Right-wing nationalism in the 1930s and remained a staunch and steadfast nationalist during the war and throughout the post-war years until his death.

9. Persona, pp. 327, 328.

10. Persona, p. 333.

11. Persona, p. 341.


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lundi, 15 septembre 2014

Emperor of Japan warned against going to war ahead of WWII

Emperor of Japan warned against going to war ahead of WWII – and even tried to stop the bombing of Pearl Harbor, new biography claims 

  • Emperor Hirohito 'warned against siding with the Nazis in 1939'
  • He said 'bombing Pearl Harbor would cause self-destructive war'
  • Claims come from 12,000-page biography commissioned by Japanese state
  • Critics say it offers 'sympathetic view' of man who was immune to war trials
  • Book has taken 24 years and £2.2 million at the cost of taxpayer to compile 

By Mia De Graaf for MailOnline

 

Fight: A new biography of Emperor Hirohito claims he tried to stop his nation siding with the Nazis in 1939Fight: A new biography of Emperor Hirohito claims he tried to stop his nation siding with the Nazis in 1939

Japan's former emperor tried to stop his country siding with the Nazis in the lead-up to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, a new biography claims.

Emperor Hirohito allegedly warned the attacks in July 1941 would cause 'nothing less than a self-destructive war'.

And in the wake of the Second World War, he told US commanders he blamed himself for failing to stop it. 

The claims come from a 12,000-page account of the leader's life, which has taken 24 years and £2.2 million to compile at the cost of the Japanese taxpayer.

It will be released in stages over the next five years, but some Japanese media outlets have been given advance extracts.

The tome portrays a sympathetic view of Hirohito as a man who rallied against army leaders.

He is remembered by some in Japan as a driving force in the nation's march to war with the Germans.

Others, however, believe he was helpless to control a corrupt military state.

The emperor's role in the war was never firmly established.

He was shielded from indictment in the Tokyo war crimes trials by a US occupation that wanted to use him as a symbol to rebuild Japan.

 

In an apparent bid to settle the confusion, Japan's Imperial Household Agency commissioned a 61-volume biography of Hirohito a year after he died in 1989 following 62 years on the throne.

More...

It claims he complained in July 1939 to Army Minister Seishiro Itagaki about the military's 'predisposition' as it strengthened its relationship with Germany, according to Japan's Kyodo news agency.  

Warning: The monarch allegedly warned the bombing of Pearl Harbor would cause a 'self-destructive war'

Warning: The monarch allegedly warned the bombing of Pearl Harbor would cause a 'self-destructive war'

Kyodo said it provides little new material and is unlikely to change current thinking about Hirohito. It does make public some letters and essays he wrote as a child.

The record confirms that Hirohito said in 1988 that he had stopped visiting the controversial Yasukuni Shrine because it had added Class A war criminals to those enshrined there, Kyodo said. 

His last visit to Yasukuni was in 1975. 

Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe visited the shrine last December, sparking official protests from China and South Korea. 

vendredi, 05 septembre 2014

India and Japan must propel the Eurasian juggernaut

iron_silk_road.jpg

Railway highways in Eurasia

India and Japan must propel the Eurasian juggernaut

 

By Atul BHARDWAJ (India)

Ex: http://orientalreview.org

The breakup of Sino- Soviet ideological alliance was Kissinger’s unkindest cut of the Cold War. A strong socialist consolidation could have offered a vigorous challenge to transatlantic hegemony. Not only did Kissinger create schisms within the communist ranks, he also made sure that India and Japan, the Asian giants, disenchanted with the West, were kept away from the probable Eurasian formation. The death of Stalin and the Japanese and the Indian elite joining the American’s anti-communist war, made China feel isolated and vulnerable. In early 1970s, China formally abandoned the communist bloc to become partners with capitalist America.

 

Almost 25 years after the end of Cold War, the specter of a budding Sino-Russian alliance is once again giving America sleepless nights. America is palpably worried because the post cold war Russia-China alliance is not standing on ‘love and fresh air’ of ideology. This new Eurasian ties are being built on strong fundamentals – Chinese economic and financial might combined with Russian resolve and military power. It is built on the common belief, that “unipolarity is pernicious” and needs to be challenged.

 

The formation of the BRICS bank – China’s proposal of a new “economic Silk Road” linking Germany, Russia and China coupled with the Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu’s announcement of the prospects of extending the Siberia railway line through Western Mongolia to Urumxi, China, and from there to Pakistan and India are not just bold but path breaking moves.

 

The year 2014 is fast turning out to be a year where the discourse is increasingly veering towards currency swap and connectivity corridors. Neither the Silk Road nor the currency swaps ideas are new. However, the current Chinese economic diplomacy overtures have gained greater salience due the fact that Russia, with hydrocarbon trade estimated at approximately a trillion dollars per year has abandoned the “petro-dollar” as the trading unit for oil and gas transactions. Coupled to this development is the fact that China, the second biggest economy in the world and a top importer of oil is inching closer to Russia and earnestly “seeking oil trading arrangements with its major suppliers, including Russia, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Venezuela, based on exchange of national currencies.” It is reported that by 2018 Russia would be pumping into China 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year with “transactions to be valued in the Russian ruble, Chinese yuan or possibly in gold.”

 

These developments have already caused jitters in the U.S. stock markets and rising levels of global skepticism related to the future of dollar as a reserve currency. Tensions are also building up in the Black Sea where it was recently reported that the American warship are unnecessarily loitering around with a hope to threaten President Putin. Russia is well versed with this futility inherent in the American gunboat diplomacy. Such maneuvers on the high seas were common during the Cold War, when the Soviet and the US warships, bound by the rules of engagement, used to engage in a peaceful duel, with both just engaging in harassing each other by showing off ship handling skills or by training the missiles from left to right.

 

The question is will the churning in the global political economy lead to increased muscle flexing and gunboat diplomacy by the US or will the dwindling dollar usher in a new era of genuine multi-polarity in the international order. However, before we move further, it must be clarified that the decline of the US in the 21st century is not absolute. It is merely relative to the remarkable growth of China. What is happening today is not the liquidation of the US Empire but the shaking of its foundation? The rise of China from a state of poverty and Russia from a state of strategic dormancy does open up the international order, offering more choices to emerging economies like India.

 

This time India should not fall into the American trap and betray the BRICS and thus the emerging Eurasian formulation. This is probably the world’s best chance to tame Western hegemony. India along with Japan should not fretter away this opportunity merely because of a tiny Senkaku island and Shinzo Abe’s fetish to turn Tokyo into a military garrison.

 

It is high time that the proposal of a new “maritime silk road” is not seen as Chinese stratagem, a devious scheme to deceive the region and establish hegemony, but a broader strategy to enhance connectivity across Asia, offering a fresh model to catapult the region out of the territorial trap. The Russo-Chinese baby steps to move out of the U.S. underwritten system of dollar dominance, and perpetual insecurity to chart a new world order.

 

The writer is a senior fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research, Institute of Chinese Studies. He is an alumnus of King’s College, London.

mardi, 26 août 2014

The Immortal Death of Mishima

yukio-mishima.jpg

The Immortal Death of Mishima

By Christopher Pankhurst

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com

When Yukio Mishima arose on the morning of November 25th 1970 he knew that it would be his last day on Earth. It was the deadline for completion of his novel, The Decay of the Angel, the fourth book in his tetralogy, The Sea of Fertility. He placed the completed manuscript, sealed in an envelope addressed to his publisher, on a table. Mishima had given intimations that the completion of the tetralogy would be the culmination of his life’s work. A month before his death he wrote to his future biographer, “Finishing the long novel (The Sea of Fertility) makes me feel as if it is the end of the world.”[1] The previous night he had left a note on his desk saying, “Human life is limited, but I would like to live forever.”[2]

He had spent some time preparing for his last day. Just the week before, there had been a major exhibition of his life held in Tokyo. One hundred thousand people viewed the exhibition, a token of Mishima’s popularity. Only Mishima, and a few of his most trusted comrades, knew that the exhibition was also a valediction. Prominently on display was Mishima’s 16th-century samurai sword, made by Seki no Magoroku, which he would be taking with him on the morning of November 25th to stage an attempted coup d’etat.

Mishima’s co-conspirators in the plan were four members of his private army, the Tatenokai, or Shield Society. This small corps (about 100 men) was formed with the stated intention of protecting the Emperor and, due to Mishima’s prestige, was allowed to use official military facilities for its training purposes. Mishima had arranged a meeting with General Mashita on the morning of the 25th and the group of five men was escorted to his office in the Ichigaya military base in Tokyo. There they took the general hostage and demanded that all the soldiers present at the garrison be assembled on the parade ground to listen to a speech given by Mishima. Mishima delivered his halting speech to a chorus of jeers from the assembled soldiers. He concluded with the patriotic chant, “Long live the Emperor!”

Retiring back to the general’s office he concluded that, “They did not hear me very well.” He then stripped to the waist and knelt down. Again shouting, “Long live the Emperor!” he stabbed himself in the abdomen with a short sword. This was the ancient samurai form of suicide by disemboweling: hara-kiri or seppuku. He pulled the blade across his stomach spilling blood into his lap until his intestines poked out of the deep cut. His second-in-command, Masakatsu Morita, then attempted to behead Mishima to relieve his agony, as had been agreed beforehand. Morita aimed a blow but missed the neck, cutting deeply into Mishima’s back. Another blow also missed the neck and a third, though on target, failed to sever the head. Another of the Tatenokai, Hiroyasu Koga, then took over and sliced Mishima’s head from his body. Morita then attempted an unsuccessful seppuku, barely penetrating his skin, and Furu-Koga cut his head off.

Mishima’s act of seppuku was the first to take place in Japan since the end of the Second World War, when hundreds of Japanese subjects committed seppuku in the grounds of the Imperial Palace to apologize to the Emperor for having lost the war. Many of the combatants in the Pacific also committed seppuku rather than suffer the dishonor of being captured by the Americans. Mishima’s suicide was radical and atavistic; it was a complex gesture both culturally and individually; and, ultimately, despite the confusion surrounding his act, it ensured that he would make his mark on eternity.

The Japanese Prime Minister, on hearing the news of Mishima’s death commented that, “He must have been kichigai, out of his mind.”[3] This judgement had more to do with the political establishment’s sense of embarrassment at Mishima’s anachronistic act than anything else. The point was expressed more clearly by the writer Nobuko Lady Albery: “It was a political embarrassment as well because just when Japan was on the point of becoming a member of the advanced industrialized nations whom we have copied so doggedly all those years; and then, here comes this writer killing himself as if the clock were put back two centuries.”[4]

In order to understand Mishima’s radical suicide it is necessary to understand the context of suicide in Japanese society, and the specific meaning of seppuku as a form of suicide. It is also necessary to consider Mishima’s own ideas concerning ritual death; ideas which are a complex mix of the traditional and the idiosyncratic.

Yukio-Mishima-Portrait02-766x1024.jpgIn Japan suicide has never been the taboo act that it traditionally is in the West. Since the advent of Christianity suicide in the West has been forbidden by the Church and often also by law. This taboo against suicide stems from Augustine who argued that life, being a gift from God, is not to be taken away, even by one’s own hand. This taboo was enshrined in law and continues to cast a dark shadow into modern times. As recently as 1969 a teenager was birched in The Isle of Man for attempting to commit suicide.[5] And it is still the case that official investigations into suicides will try their best to remain euphemistic about the cause of death:

Religious and bureaucratic prejudices, family sensitivity, the vagaries and differences in the proceedings of coroners’ courts and post-mortem examinations, the shadowy distinctions between suicides and accidents – in short, personal, official and traditional unwillingness to recognize the act for what it is – all help to pervert and diminish our knowledge of the extent to which suicide pervades society. . . For suicide to be recognized for what it is, there must be an unequivocal note or a setting so unambiguous as to leave the survivors no alternatives: all the windows sealed and a cushion under the dead head in front of the unlit gas-fire.[6]

In addition to the religious taboo against suicide there are other significant differences in the perception of suicide in Japan and the West. Suicide in the West is now generally seen as a mental health issue, and the potential suicide is treated as a psychological problem. This diagnosis tends to come from a deeper assumption that the problem lies at the level of the individual. In Japan there is a much stronger sense of social belonging so that it is perfectly possible for someone to commit suicide for reasons that have more to do with social standing. There is a specific type of suicide that is seen to represent atonement for a social or legal misdeed (whether real or perceived). This type of suicide is known as inseki-jisatsu.

Suicide after a social scandal is called inseki-jisatsu (suicide to take responsibility for a scandal) in Japan, but the inseki-jisatsu occurs regardless of whether the person is guilty or guiltless. Inseki-jisatsu is caused by a sense of disgrace. Those who commit inseki-jisatsu think that a scandal related to them adversely affects a community which they belong to, and that the scandal disgraces their names regardless of the truth of the scandal. . . Inseki-jisatsu occurs in Japan because the Japanese people tend to possess a strong sense of belonging to their community, and they cannot imagine losing the community which forms their identity. After the inseki-jisatsu, people usually do not blame the people who have committed suicide. . . because blaming the dead is thought to be disrespectful in Japan.[7]

Whereas in the West suicide is a shameful, forbidden act, in Japan there is a long tradition of the honorable suicide. For a Japanese person suicide can be a means of making amends or redeeming himself. Suicide can also serve to make amends for another person. Inseki-jisatsu can sometimes be carried out by employees who wish to cover up for their bosses’ corruption. The suicide will thus remove a key witness whilst at the same time atoning for any sense of scandal. This is considered to be a noble act because it allows for the good name of one’s community to remain intact. The ultimate honor, in this context, is to die for the Emperor. Most famously, the kamikaze pilots in the Second World War were eager to give their lives in service to the Emperor. To be chosen for such a suicide mission was considered a great honor.

This cultural distinction between Japanese and Western attitudes to suicide also extends to “murder-suicides”:

A Japanese mother (in Los Angeles) attempted to drown herself and her two children in the sea in 1985. The mother survived, but her two children died. This mother was prosecuted for murder, and the mother was regarded as an egoistic mother who killed her children without necessity in the USA. However, Japanese society was sympathetic to the mother. The mother and her children were treated as an expression of alteregoism, and it was thought that the children could not live happily without a mother even if they were not killed. Mothers who killed their children and then attempted suicide are usually not punished severely in Japan while in the USA those mothers are severely punished for the murder of their children.[8]

Even though Japanese society has changed rapidly and has become increasingly Westernized it is still affected by its historic attitude towards suicide. According the World Health Authority, Japan has the highest suicide rate of any developed country at almost 26 per 100,000 people.[9] About a quarter of suicides in Japan are motivated by financial concerns, and the number has been increasing since the global financial crisis in 2008 led to a contraction of the Japanese economy. Often, suicide is considered an honorable solution to debt because life insurance payments will cover the amount owing. Thus, social stigma is banished and the person’s good reputation remains unblemished.

It is necessary to bear in mind this important difference of attitude between Western societies and Japan when considering Mishima’s suicide. He came from a tradition that was capable of understanding the sense of honor that could be associated with suicide. Within this culture of honorable suicide, seppuku is considered as a particularly noble act. Seppuku was the traditional form of suicide practiced by the samurai so it is associated with great courage and aristocracy. The degree of courage needed to carry out this act is both immense and self-evident. According to Toyomasa Fusé, a renowned expert on the subject:

Of all types of suicide, seppuku is considered to be the most painful. Since the lower abdomen has heavy muscle linings and fats, even the sharpest blade would not be able to pierce it easily. It is said that the deepest thrust of the sharpest blade could not be more than 7cm deep. A samurai committing seppuku is expected to stab the left side of his abdomen first and then slit it open sideways. In the process he will also cut and slit the internal organs, causing excruciating pain. It usually takes hours before one dies successfully, thereby prolonging the excruciating pain and requiring a superhuman courage and perseverance. It is understandable, then, that this form of suicide had become a way of dying and a badge of courage for a proud warrior class such as the samurai in Japan.[10]

Mishima’s autopsy found that he had a cut five inches long and up to two inches deep across his abdomen.[11] His seppuku was evidently carried out according to the superhuman standards set down by the samurai, and would have required great physical strength as well as courage. If anything, Mishima’s seppuku is even more remarkable for the fact that he was not trained to carry it out. His biographer, Henry Scott Stokes, interviewed two of Mishima’s martial arts teachers who both confirmed that he was not trained to carry out seppuku. One commented that his wrists were stiff and that he was unable to hold his kendo sword correctly, whilst the other said that Mishima had asked him for details of how to carry out seppuku, on the pretext that he was to write something on the subject.[12]

yu6133770_128960986741.jpgIn fact, Mishima had written a description of seppuku in gruesome detail some years earlier. In the short story, Patriotism, he describes a young officer who is unwilling to act against his former comrades who had taken part in the Ni Ni Roku rebellion. In order to maintain his honor, the officer commits seppuku:

The lieutenant aimed to strike deep into the left of his stomach. His sharp cry pierced the silence of the room. Despite the effort he had himself put into the blow, the lieutenant had the impression that someone else had struck the side of his stomach agonizingly with a thick rod of iron. For a second or so his head reeled and he had no idea what had happened. The five or six inches of naked point had vanished completely into his flesh, and the white bandage, gripped in his clenched fist, pressed directly against his stomach. He returned to consciousness. The blade had certainly pierced the wall of the stomach, he thought. . . With only his right hand on the sword the lieutenant began to cut sideways across his stomach. But as the blade became entangled with the entrails it was pushed constantly outward by their soft resilience; and the lieutenant realized that it would be necessary, as he cut, to use both hands to keep the point pressed deep into his stomach. He pulled the blade across. It did not cut as easily as he had expected. . . By the time the lieutenant had at last drawn the sword across to the right side of his stomach, the blade was already cutting shallow and had revealed its naked tip, slippery with blood and grease. But, suddenly stricken by a fit of vomiting, the lieutenant cried out hoarsely. The vomiting made the fierce pain fiercer still, and the stomach, which had thus far remained firm and compact, now abruptly heaved, opening wide its wound, and the entrails burst through, as if the wound too were vomiting. Seemingly ignorant of their master’s suffering, the entrails gave an impression of robust health and almost disagreeable vitality as they slipped smoothly out and spilled over into the crotch. . . Blood was scattered everywhere. The lieutenant was soaked in it to his knees, as he sat now in a crumpled and listless posture, one hand on the floor. . . The blade of the sword, now pushed back by the entrails and exposed to its tip was still in the lieutenant’s right hand. It would be difficult to imagine a more heroic sight than that of the lieutenant at this moment, as he mustered his strength and flung back his head.[13]

Mishima was viscerally aware of the gory reality of seppuku even if he was not formally trained to carry it out. He was not naïve about what seppuku would entail. But at the same time he did have a very romantic view of seppuku, glorifying it as an aesthetically pleasing, divinely sanctioned, and heroic death.

His fascination with the aesthetic aspects of violent death was first presented in his autobiographical novel Confessions of a Mask, published when he was 24 years old. In this work, Mishima recounts finding an art reproduction of Guido Reni’s St. Sebastian amongst his father’s books. As he looks at the picture of the male nude penetrated by arrows he becomes overwhelmed with sexual arousal, filled with “pagan joy,”[14] and for the first time in his life he masturbates, ejaculating into his hand. This conflation of homosexual arousal, artistic aestheticism, bloody violence, and youthful death would remain important concerns of Mishima’s throughout his life.

Mishima’s sense of “pagan joy” whilst masturbating over the painting of Sebastian is apt, as Sebastian has long been both an unofficial patron saint of homosexuals and an honorary pagan. It has long been recognised that depictions of Sebastian can attract inappropriate sexual attention. In the early 16th century a particularly lifelike depiction of a nude Sebastian by Fra Bartolommeo had to be removed from the church where it had been on display because women were admitting through the confessional that it was inspiring them to sinful thoughts.[15] More recently Derek Jarman filmed a quasi-pornographic life of Sebastian, which fell foul of the censors due to its graphic content.

The historical Sebastian was a captain in the Praetorian Guard who promulgated Christianity and actively sought to convert others to that faith. He was originally a favourite of the Emperor Diocletian but when he fell from grace due to his religious activities he was ordered to be executed. He was tied up and shot at with arrows. Although the iconography depicting his martyrdom is usually associated with this scene, he did not actually die from his wounds. He was rescued and nursed back to life by a woman, St. Irene. Sebastian then denounced the Emperor and was clubbed to death as a punishment.

The fact that Sebastian was a favourite of Diocletian but then, later in life, denounced him provides an interesting parallel with Mishima’s own life. When he was a boy, Mishima was awarded a silver watch by Emperor Hirohito for his academic achievements. As was customary for the Japanese, Mishima worshipped the Emperor. But following Japan’s defeat in 1945, Hirohito was forced by the Americans to renounce his divinity. In a speech to the nation, he stated that the Emperor was not divine, and that the Japanese were not superior to other races. For many Japanese, particularly Right wing nationalists, this was an unacceptable humiliation. Mishima was later to write a story in which the ghosts of kamikaze pilots return from the dead to berate the Emperor for renouncing his divinity. In Japan, criticism of the Emperor was a severe social taboo. Despite Mishima’s avowed, indeed somewhat extreme, Emperor worship, he became a controversial figure in Japan for this criticism of the Emperor.

Mishima saw the Emperor as a fixed, solar principle in whom was embodied the sacred potential of the Japanese people. Like Sebastian whose denunciation of Emperor Diocletian was motivated by knowledge of a higher principle, allegiance to which was more powerful than allegiance to life, Mishima’s criticism of Hirohito was inspired by the realisation that the Emperor was a divine presence, and that this divinity was the source of ultimate meaning. His allegiance is primarily to this numinous presence and only secondarily to the person of the Emperor. “Why did the Emperor have to become a human being?” he asks in Voices of the Heroic Dead. And, like Sebastian, Mishima was willing to die in service to this ultimate metaphysical allegiance.

Mishima was later to write a sort of aesthetic manifesto, Sun and Steel, in which he described how his role as a writer had become inadequate, and how he sought fulfilment through the cultivation of the body. As Mishima saw it, words had led him towards a certain conception of beauty; but due to the temporal corrosiveness of words which could only reveal beauty by segmenting reality into semantic chunks – and thereby presenting a succession of endings to the continuity and purity of life – the pursuit of literature was no longer sufficient to his ambition. He equates intellectual activity with nocturnal and weak pursuits, and he contrasts this with the practice of physical development which is solar and strong. Through this physical development he is able to aspire to an ideal form, one that can achieve a greater sense of purity than merely spiritual or intellectual development.

Because Mishima has come to see literature as hamstrung in its pursuit of beauty, due to the temporal and subjective constraints that delimit its scope, he turns instead to the body as a means of approaching the ideal. As in Confessions of a Mask, written almost twenty years earlier, he sees the death of the idealised, youthful body as a sort of perfection: “Here lies the mysterious significance of an early death, which the Greeks envied as a sign of the love of the gods.”[16] The ageing process becomes a sort of falsification, as it is a degeneration of youth, beauty and purity. Mishima has come to see youthful death as a means of cheating this degeneration; of retaining purity; and of conferring immortality.

The problem for Mishima was that at the time he was writing Sun and Steel he was no longer a young man. He had missed his opportunity to be conscripted to an early death during the Second World War. In order to achieve an ideal physical form, and so recapture the perfection of youth, Mishima takes up bodybuilding. The weights come to embody the principle of steel: a counterpoint to human flesh that confers a condition of hard immortality. By fashioning his body in this way, he is able to create a form that is somehow an unveiling of a deeper truth: “By its subtle, infinitely varied operation, the steel restored the classical balance that the body had begun to lose, reinstating it in its natural form, the form that it should have had all along.”[17] Like a sculptor, he reveals the perfect form that lies inherent in the uncarved stone. And thus, in diurnal, solar, physical activity, Mishima finally creates the sculpted form that will provide a fitting sacrifice for the Emperor. This sacrifice will allow his form to retain its recreated perfection for eternity.

The attempt to achieve an aestheticisation of the body, and an elevated sense of purity, ran concurrent with Mishima’s lifestyle which was, in many respects, deeply embedded in the Kali Yuga. His homosexuality was notable in Japan at that time, if not for its practice then for his literary depiction of it. Indeed, there was no term for homosexuality in Japanese:

In the modern idiom, one might say he was “outed as gay,” but circa 1950s Japan lacked a conceptual term that linked sexual practice to identity in this capacity. Likely for this reason Mishima felt it necessary to coin the first word of its kind, danshokuka, which translates to the effect of “man lover person.” This neologism, presented in the novel Forbidden Colors (1954), starkly broke away from traditional Japanese notions of sexual orientation in favor of a more Western construction of the self.[18]

In Confessions of a Mask, Mishima describes the masturbation fantasies he had as a teenage boy. These involve a great deal of torture, blood, and cannibalism, always inflicted on young men. The literary expressions of his homosexual desire were always explicit and morbid, and seem to jar with his fanatical pursuit of an idealised purity. Further to this, he posed for a series of somewhat avant garde photographs, collected in the book Torture by Roses. He also posed for photographs as Saint Sebastian, modelled on the Reni painting he described masturbating over in Confessions. And, he starred in a number of downmarket gangster films. His house was very large and styled as a Western colonial house at a time when Japanese houses tended to be small and modest, and of an Eastern character. So, in many respects he was unusual in being very interested in and influenced by contemporary Western tendencies whilst at the same time developing an increasingly extreme view of Japanese purity.

mishima.jpgAll of this leads many observers to conclude that the right wing nationalism that Mishima adopted in the 1960s, culminating in his formation of the Tatenokai and attempted coup d’etat, was another mask that he wore, one that provided him with a convenient pretext to commit the suicide that he had aestheticised and eroticised for so long. Whilst it would be foolhardy to try to identify the “real” motives of such a complex man, it is still possible to see that this argument is inadequate to the facts. One critic who follows this line of thought declares that Mishima’s suicide was, “the ultimate in literary irony.”[19] A rereading of the extract quoted above concerning the physical effects of performing seppuku should give appropriate context to thoughts of an ironic suicide. A person does not cut out his intestines as an act of literary irony.

Yet, at the same time, Mishima’s embrace of nationalism was somewhat problematic. In Runaway Horses, the second novel of his final tetralogy, he tells the story of Isao, a Right-wing nationalist intent on sparking an Imperial revolution. Isao is a fanatic inspired by a book, The League of the Divine Wind by Tsunanori Yamao. In The League of the Divine Wind, the story is told of a group of nationalist samurai who objected to the reforms of the Meiji restoration, such as commerce with foreigners and the prohibition on wearing a sword. They attempt to instigate a revolution to cleanse Japan of these impurities. When the revolution fails, each of the men commits seppuku. Isao is utterly enchanted with this book and gathers together a group of like-minded nationalists who attempt to follow the example of the League of the Divine Wind. His intent is to carry out a series of assassinations and attacks on infrastructure, then to commit seppuku. His idea of seppuku is utterly romantic: “Before the sun. . . at the top of a cliff at sunrise, while paying reverence to the sun. . . while looking down upon the sparkling sea, beneath a tall noble pine. . . to kill myself.”[20] When the Lieutenant to whom he describes this ideal points out that it is not possible to choose the exact circumstances of one’s death the text continues: “Isao gave no heed to the Lieutenant’s words. Subtle discourse, exegesis, the ‘on the one hand this, on the other that’ approach – all these were foreign to his way of thinking. His ideal was drawn upon pure white paper in fresh black ink. Its text was mysterious, and it excluded not only translation but also every critique and commentary.”[21]

Isao is committed to the purity of the act rather than the contingencies of its enactment or the likelihood of its success. For him, it is essential that there must be the possibility of ultimate meaning in life, and for him this meaning is effected through the figure of the Emperor. What can be seen as a pathological suicidal impulse is, in fact, rather more subtle than that. Isao cannot countenance living in a Japan that has become corrupted through internal venality and imported decadence. For him, the Emperor is the point of singularity around which all else must orbit for life to have meaning. His revolutionary act is exoterically aimed at purifying Japan and resisting the encroachment of the foreign barbarians, but esoterically it is aimed at achieving the realisation, the immanence, of the existence of an ultimate principle:

And the greatest sin is that of a man who, finding himself in a world where the sacred light of His Majesty is obscured, nevertheless determines to go on living without doing anything about it. The only way to purge this grave sin is to make a fiery offering with one’s own hands, even if that itself is a sin, to express one’s loyalty in action, and then to commit seppuku immediately. With death, all is purified. But as long as a man goes on living, he can’t move either right or left, or take any action whatever, without sinning.[22]

As Runaway Horses unfolds, Isao appears more and more as a misguided figure. He is continually coming up against the reality of the contingencies of life that jar with the beautiful ideal he has constructed for his own life. His father betrays him to the police before his group are able to carry out their attacks. His father reasons that Isao is a naïve idealist who lacks pragmatism, “There’s such a thing as the favorable moment. Determination alone counts for nothing. Thus I have to conclude that my son is too young. The necessary discernment is still beyond him. . . Rather than take action, the best course is to achieve results without acting.”[23] This assessment is a fundamental misunderstanding of Isao, and by extension, of Mishima.

The interesting thing about Runaway Horses is that the character of Isao is an exact analogue of Mishima in many respects. At the time of writing the book Mishima himself was in the process of forming a small corps of right wing nationalists who would attempt a similar, albeit less murderous, rebellion. It is also certain that Mishima was already committed to the idea of carrying out seppuku as the climax to this action. Many critics have dismissed Mishima’s politics as silly and suggested that the formation of the Tatenokai and the assault on Ichigaya were merely elaborate pretexts for the performance of Mishima’s seppuku. The characterisation of Isao tends to support this analysis as it shows that Mishima has moved on from the idealised and romantic notions of heroic seppuku that he depicted in Patriotism. Instead, we can read Isao as Mishima’s attempt to detach himself somewhat from the naïve idealism he had previously described. Unlike the officer in Patriotism, Isao is unable to achieve the death that he had envisaged. He exists in a messy world of contingency, and when he finally commits seppuku he must do so hastily, before being captured. This leads some to conclude that Mishima was far too sophisticated to really believe in the ideals of the Tatenokai, and that he simply exploited them for his own narcissistic ends.

There is some plausibility to this view but it is crucial to understand that the Tatenokaiand attempted coup were not incidental to Mishima’s intentions but were the apposite vehicle for them. He was sincere in his Right-wing nationalism and in his wish to re-establish samurai values and he was willing to die for this cause. Yet at the same time he realised that there would be no chance of his miniscule, poorly trained army succeeding in their coup. This disjunction between the purity of his idealised ambition and the pragmatic possibilities open to him also encompasses the various personal and artistic proclivities that seem out of sync with his uncompromising aesthetic of death and Emperor worship, such as his homosexuality and sadism. It would appear that his awareness of weakness, decadence and egotism was no barrier to his grasp of numinous purity. And in death he was able to transcend all of these things and realise perfection. Isao, despite not being able to commit seppuku in the manner he had dreamed of, nonetheless experiences a profound and victorious vision in death: “The instant that the blade tore open his flesh, the bright disc of the sun soared up and exploded behind his eyelids.”[24]

Lying behind all of Mishima’s diverse interests was a deeper imperative to establish the reality of an ultimate source of meaning, beyond human contingency. For Mishima this principle was embodied in the Emperor. The siege of Ichigaya was undertaken with a sincere motive but the external, real world, outcome of the event was always going to be a matter of secondary importance. The incidental details of his suicide, including his lifelong preparation, were arranged with a superior artist’s eye for the dramatic. But all of this was in service to a greater idea, one which could only be realised through transcending contingency. With his death he was able to sacramentalize his life and achieve a final victory by touching the face of the divine. As the note read, “Human life is limited, but I would like to live forever.”

Notes

1. Henry Scott Stokes, The Life and Death of Yukio Mishima (Peter Owen, 1975), p.235.

2. Ibid., p. 234.

3. Ibid., p. 51.

4. The Strange Case of Yukio Mishima (supplementary documentary on Mishima: A life in Four Chapters), 2008, DVD, The Criterion Collection.

5. A. Alvarez, The Savage God: A Study of Suicide (Penguin Books, 1971), p. 66.

6. Ibid., p. 106.

7. Aya Maeda, “How suicide has been conceived in Japan and in the Western World: Hara-kiri, Martyrdom and Group Suicide,” in Erich A. Berendt (ed.), Facing Finality: Cognitive and Cultural Studies on Death and Dying (University of Louisville Press, 2009), p.100.

8. Ibid., p. 102.

9. Rob Gilhooly, “Inside Japan’s ‘Suicide Forest’,” The Japan Times, June 26, 2011.

10. Toyomase Fusé, “Suicide and Culture in Japan: A Study of Seppuku as an Institutionalized Form Of Suicide,” Social Psychiatry, 1980, 15, pp. 57-63.

11. Scott Stokes, The Life and Death of Yukio Mishima, p. 51.

12. Henry Scott Stokes, “Headless in Ichigaya: Yukio Mishima’s Legacy,” 2006, Foreign Correspondents’ Club of Japan.

13. Yukio Mishima, Patriotism (New Directions, 1966), pp. 45-51.

14. Yukio Mishima, Confessions of a Mask (Panther Books, 1972), p. 37.

15. Richard A. Kaye, “‘Determined Raptures’: St. Sebastian and the Victorian Discourse of Decadence,” Victorian Literature and Culture, 1999, 27(1), p. 27.

16. Yukio Mishima, Sun & Steel (Secker & Warburg, 1971), p. 68.

17. Ibid., p. 24.

18. Matthew Chozick, “Queering Mishima’s Suicide as a Crisis of Language,” Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies, 15 October 2007.

19. Peter Abelsen, ‘Irony and Purity: Mishima’, Modern Asian Studies, 30(3), pp. 651-79.

20. Yukio Mishima, Runaway Horses (Vintage Classics, 2000), p. 125.

21. Ibid., p. 125.

22. Ibid., p. 188.

23. Ibid., p. 315.

24. Ibid., p. 421.

Source: The original version of this essay was published in a Black Front Press volume on Mishima. This version is to be reprinted in a Ravenshalla Arts compilation of writings by Christopher Pankhurst.


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lundi, 18 août 2014

Miyamoto Musashi’s Dokkodo

bfc0b424ad0dbb183444d9be56a5db69.jpg

Miyamoto Musashi’s Dokkodo

Dokkodo (獨行道), roughly translated means  “The Path of Walking Alone,”  “The Path of Independence,” or “The Lone Path”/  Although the English translation does not give the title much justice, it is should be noted that this refers not to a path of nihilistic abandon, nor a path of misanthropy.  Misanthropes who have crossed beyond a certain point will not be able to adhere to it unless they have the discipline and fortitude for it.  It is a demanding way and requires that the person choosing the path be able to endure its precepts, including those such as being in the world, without being of it in the sense of being drowned in ‘worldliness.’  Such a concept is paralleled the Christian injunctions that “Whosoever therefore will be a friend of the world is the enemy of God” (James 4:4) and “Denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world” (Titus 2:12).  Similar concepts exist in the Qur’an, namely, “Do not let your wealth or your children distract you from the remembrance of God”.  When the “Eastern” Daoist and Buddhist veneers are stripped away, we find something not at all that different from monotheistic teachings.  It is worth examining this code for relevance to augment understanding of the world.

Musashi_ts_pic

A woodblock print depicting Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645) wielding two bokken.

1. Do not go against the traditions that have been handed down from the generations (世々の道をそむく事なし)

The first principle is a bit difficult to translate directly into English.  The phrase 世々 (yoyo) refers roughly to “previous generations,” while 道 (michi) refers to “the way”; そむく (somoku) means “oppose,” and 事なし (kotonashi) is the negation of a verb.  It has variously been translated as, “Accept things as they are” or “Do not go against the way of the world”.

In “accepting things as they are,” one is not asked to tolerate evil or be passive, but is in an active mental struggle to realize our true place in the world and how small we are.  It is a battle against the ego to accept our mistakes, to bury the past, and live in the now instead of in the future.  Often things we resist are in the past: not accepting that someone has died or being angry over events that have occurred previously. These are things we simply can not change and that is why it makes no sense to resist what has happened.

By respecting the traditions, one “traverses time from the past to the future”. According to Imai Masayuki, this sentence indicates a man who is independent, yet, acting freely conforms to a truth of human nature.

71aZweq6IbL__SL1092_.jpg2. Do not seek pleasure for its own sake (身にたのしみをたくます)

The most direct application here is to refrain from engaging in behavior that gives one temporary satisfaction, without understanding the consequences.  For instance, it may be more pleasurable to spend one’s spare time with wine, woman and song, rather than in serious study.  In a hedonistic, decadent, narcissistic world one can get easily distracted in the sights and sounds even though temporary.  It is important to be aware of how harmful these things can be once they become so imbued into our characters as to become a ‘raison d’etre.’  The addiction to flesh, drink, substances, and even music has been studied and found to be folly.  Hence the reasonable parameters imposed by society and The Divine.

3. Do not rely upon any half-hearted prejudices. (よろすに依枯の心なし)

Sometimes, it is necessary to take a step back and make a better assessment of the situation.  A true warrior, sage, or gentleman is not impulsive or hot-headed, and should strive to uphold justice in all situations.  This also means that in dealing with other people, one does not take sides with a certain party without good reason, nor does he harbor indifference towards others.

4. Think humbly of yourself, but deeply of the world (身をあさく思、世をふかく思ふ)

This means to be humble and to think of one’s superficiality.  Musashi is telling us here that one should not overestimate one’s importance in the world.  Such a self-centered view is dominated by egocentricity and selfish desires.  One must evolve beyond such delusions, but at the same time accept that each person has their own limits.

This can also mean to not take excessive pride in one’s own accomplishments and possessions:  Do not think that your entire self-worth is in your job or your possessions, rather than in your character or your good deeds. You are not what you own.  This is difficult when people gauge worth with material success; your car is not you, your house is not you, your Rolex is not your soul, Gucci has no dominion over your heart.

5. Be detached from desire your whole life long (一生の間よくしん思わす)

This ties in with the fourth precept.  Eliminate the driving need for wanting instead of a want for needing.  Then, you will have less fear and be unfettered by worldly cares.  If you are removed from your own desires, then it is easier to follow a path of right conduct.  Eliminate the lusts for material desires, and one already has enough.  The concept of wu wei, or mushin ties into this as your lack of hindrances like too much fear in an endeavor will give you success.

6. Do not regret your past (我事におゐて後悔をせす)

There are times when one has to make decisions.  Decisions, even if weighed carefully, are not always successful.  However, if you tried your best, and you put your best efforts into achieving the right outcome, that is good enough.  Of course, this does not apply to someone who is reckless and stubborn.  However, those who have the right intent need not dwell on the past that they cannot fix.  Instead repent, move on, and become better.

7. Never have bad intentions or envy in your heart (善惡に他をねたむ心なし)

Jealousy clouds the heart with envy; envy poisons the mind with anger and despair.  What seems to be someone else’s treasure may be a great burden.  With selfish desires in the heart, we cannot truly live a fulfilling life or be at peace with ourselves or others.  That lifestyle of those you envy may earn them an early death and debts for generations.  It is nothing to be jealous about.

8. Never let yourself be saddened by a separation (いつれの道にもわかれをかなします)

According to the Buddha, attachment is the source of all suffering.   Meister Eckhart says, “He who would be serene and pure needs but detachment”.  Separation can apply to losing a partner, a pet, money, possessions or anything of the sort.  Things will come and go.  People will enter and leave.  Let them go.  The Divine will is going to decide who is going to be with whom and how. 

4352501395_ef41725cbb_z.jpg9. Complaining and bearing grudges are appropriate neither for oneself or others (自他共にうらみかこつ心なし)

Our selfish desires may lead us to complain about others.  For instance, if a person is unsatisfied with another person, he may spread rumors or complain about the other behind his back.  He may also hold a grudge against such a person.  This is not the behavior of a wise person.  Deal with it, it will make you stronger. 

10. Do not let yourself be guided by the feeling of lust or love (れんほの道思ひよるこゝろなし)

In the context of Buddhism, In Buddhism there are five different kinds of desires based on desire for money, lust, appetite, desire for fame, desire for sleep.  Out of these, lust, being a biological drive, is very hard to avoid.  Control yourself and use logical thought when going down that path.  To be at the whim of emotion is to be a slave and then to be attached to most temporary of material possessions: a mortal body.  It will not even withstand the wind like the mountain, or show the same splendor for aeons like the stars.  These too are material objects which will have their death as The Giver and Taker ordains.

11. In all things, have no preferences (物毎にすきこのむ事なし)

Again, this does not mean to become a nihilist.  On the contrary, it means to not be obsessed over small and inconsequential matters.  Do not be driven or guided by what you cannot control.

12. Be indifferent to where you live (私宅におゐてのそむ心なし)

Where you live is not a matter of importance when you follow this way.  As you are already trying to depart from these cares, you should be able to be steadfast and thrive anywhere.

13. Do not pursue the taste of luxurious food (身ひとつに美食をこのます)

The purpose of eating is to nourish oneself.  Luxurious food does not accomplish this any better than simple food.  In his life, Musashi was a warrior who at times faced levels of extreme privation.  However, in the worldview of the bushi, life itself is preparation for war.  Avoiding that which is unnecessary is better than indulging in it.

14. Do not become attached to old possessions you no longer need (末々代物なる古き道具を所持せす)

Nothing in the world remains ours forever.  Upon death, one’s personal items typically become the property of another.  Removing clutter from your life with generosity allows you to live a more unhindered existence and also be aware that you need little.  You came into the world with nothing, you travel lightly in the world, and you will leave it with nothing.

15. Do not act following customary beliefs (わか身にいたり物いみする事なし)

Although this seems to contradict the first principle, all this is saying is that there are times in which what is popular will not always be right.  For instance, what use is it to worship celebrities, to bury oneself in pursuit of that extolled?  It just wastes time and time is what you will never have enough of.  Walk the way and live guided by what is ever-enduring.  It will be there after this society has faded into the sands of history.

16. Do not collect weapons or practice with weapons beyond what is useful (兵具は格別よの道具たしなます)

What is the utility of engaging in hours practicing or acquiring that which you do not need?  For the warrior, weapons are not merely possessions to be owned and collected in the same manner that a merchant may collect trinkets.  Today we may not need swords, but instead must use other objects for defense of person, loved ones, and property.  Are these tools, worth much pursuit?

17. Don’t spend your entire life being preoccupied with death (道におゐてハ 死を いとわす 思ふ)

Death will happen just as you have been born.  As a warrior, to live without the fear of death is paramount.  For a sage or scholar, one who lives a proper life and death does not need to fear death.  For someone who has lived properly, physical death is not an end, but the hand which will lift the veil of life separating him from The Compassionate Sustainer.  Death is as natural as life; life indeed by its nature is the purchase of death.  What is better? To depart with a good record, or choose a legacy of iniquity?

18. Do not seek to possess either goods or fiefs for your old age (老身に財寳所領もちゆる心なし)

Millions try to save up all their lives for their dreams: to retire wealthy, to have fun, to own a house of their own.  Usually this money goes instead for their care as the world of work has taken its toll.  Have no illusions.

19. Revere the Divine but do not demand assistance (佛神は貴し佛神をたのます)

Although this can be viewed as an atheistic sentiment, it can also be interpreted to mean not to be arrogant in the face of the Divine, by demanding certain things.  One should not have the illusion that one’s own desires are a manifestation of the divine will.  As that immortal essence which transcends everything, God in its own driving of the greater forces which become the laws of reality will determine the necessity of your supplications.  The Divine decides everything and has the best answer for particular petitions.  Nevertheless, without reverence and sincerity, one cannot be in harmony with the Godhead.  Regardless of what is given, it is duty of the believer to believe in, love, and worship.

20. You may discard your own body, but you must preserve your honour (身を捨ても名利はすてす)

There are worse things than dying.  There are situations when dying is the most noble and preferable action to take.

21. Never abandon the Eternal Way (常に兵法の道をはなれす)

The purpose of the Dokkodo is to bring out a form of active asceticism – the warrior’s asceticism of action, as Evola would have put it.  Whatever happens, stay on the path: when the purpose become enlightenment, the Way becomes of paramount of importance.

Regardless of the external trappings of culture and the differences made manifest in it, there are universal ideals and beliefs within religious and martial traditions.  These doctrines give a sense of civility, sophistication, moral understanding, and examples to people and nations who are flawed.  Being flawed is the nature of the human being.  Flawed beings are always in need of Divine Guidance and its implementation.  As above, so below.

jeudi, 14 août 2014

Karl Haushofer und Japan

 

KarlHaushofer.jpg

Spang, Christian W.
Karl Haushofer und Japan
Die Rezeption seiner geopolitischen Theorien in der deutschen und japanischen Politik

2013 · ISBN 978-3-86205-040-6 · 1008 Seiten, geb. · EUR 105,
Monographien, herausgegeben vom Deutschen Institut für Japanstudien
(Bd. 52)


INHALT

A Einleitung (S. 10)
I. Vorwort (S. 10)
II. Forschungsstand (S. 24)
III. Quellenlage und Fragestellung (S. 64)

B Biographische Grundlagen (S. 78)
I. Bayerischer Militärbeobachter 1909/10: Der Japanaufenthalt als Lebenswende (S. 78)
II. Die zweite Karriere: Vom Generalmajor zum Geopolitiker und Japanexperten (S. 146)

C Geopolitik und außenpolitische Theorie (S. 208)
I. Die Entwicklung der deutschen Geopolitik bis 1945: Von der Politischen Geographie zum Propagandawerkzeug? (S. 208)
II. Haushofers Kontinentalblockthese als Basis für deutsche Weltmachtphantasien (S. 285)

D Haushofer als Vermittler zwischen Deutschland und Japan (S. 364)
I. Von der Idee zur Praxis: Haushofer als Brückenbauer in Deutschland (S. 364)
II. Der deutsche Einfluß auf die Entstehung der Geopolitik in Japan (S. 480)

E Der Einfluß der Geopolitik auf Theorie und Praxis der japanischen Expansion (S. 547)
I. Die Tokyo-Schule und die Ideologie der „Großostasiatischen Wohlstandssphäre" (S. 547)
II. Die Kyoto-Schule und die japanische Armee (S. 656)

F Resümee und Ausblick (S. 712)

Hinweise (S. 735)
Abkürzungsverzeichnis und Glossar (S. 738)
Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis (S. 747)
Anhänge (S. 938)
Personenindex (S. 991)

140.jpg„Mit diesem imposanten Werk liegt eine überzeugende Neuinterpretation des Wirkens von Karl Haushofer vor: Der globale Ansatz seiner Theorien wird durch die Fokussierung auf Japan und die dortige Rezeption von Haushofers Gedankenwelt erstmals deutlich herausgearbeitet. Haushofer wird überzeugend als theoretischer Wegbereiter nationalsozialistischer Eurasienpolitik beschrieben, der das Drehbuch zum ‚Dreimächtepakt’ verfasste, und mit seinen Werken in Japan sogar auf die Kriegsplanung einwirkte. Das ausgebreitete Detailwissen ist beeindruckend, die Interpretation neu und auch die sprachliche Umsetzung geglückt.“
Bernd Martin (Historiker, Freiburg) im Januar 2013

„Besonders beachtenswert ist, mit welchem Einfühlungsvermögen und welcher Kenntnis der Autor, ein Neuzeithistoriker, auch die geographische Fachliteratur berücksichtigt und in den Forschungskontext einordnet. Damit handelt es sich um eine fachliche Grenzen überschreitende, fundierte sowie äußerst anregende und anspruchsvolle Arbeit.“
Jörg Stadelbauer (Geograph, Freiburg – Yangon/Myanmar) im Februar 2013

„Auf Grund der vorliegenden Darstellung ist die raumpolitische Beeinflussung der NSDAP durch Karl Haushofer nicht mehr zu bestreiten. Im Unterschied zur nationalsozialistischen Ideologie ist für Haushofer der Raum allerdings keine rassisch bestimmte Größe. Vor uns liegt eine Biographie, wie sie umfänglicher und einfühlsamer bezüglich des ‚Titelhelden’ inmitten zweier Gesellschaften wohl kaum verfasst werden kann. Der Autor weist Karl Haushofer den ihm zustehenden Platz in der modernen Geistesgeschichte Deutschlands und Japans zu.“
Hans-Erich Volkmann (Militärhistoriker, Leiter der Forschungsabteilung des MGFA Potsdam, 1994 –2003) im Februar 2013


Christian W. Spang, Associate Professor an der Daitō Bunka Universität in Tokyo. Forschungsschwerpunkt: Deutsch-japanische Beziehungen. Weitere Publikationen: C.W. Spang, R.-H. Wippich (Hrsg.), Japanese-German Relations 1895-1945, London, 2006. 2014 wird eine von ihm maßgeblich mitverfasste Geschichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens (OAG) bei Iudicium erscheinen.

Dr. Christian W. Spang on German-Japanese Relations and on Karl Haushofer

Dr. Christian W. Spang on German-Japanese Relations and on Karl Haushofer

Who is Dr. Christian W. Spang ?

 
 
 
194
This paper deals with Karl Haushofer's geopolitical ideas and the influence these concepts had on the development of Japanese geopolitics in the 1930s.
384
 
One of my earliest papers on Haushofer, based on a conference paper, delivered in Trier 1999. The article deals with Haushofer's influence in Germany. In some parts outdated.
34
My earliest paper on Haushofer. The rather long article deals with Haushofer's influence in Germany and in Japan. In some parts outdated.
68
 
This Japanese paper is a translation of an earlier German article titled “Karl Haushofer und die Geopolitik in Japan. Zur Bedeutung Haushofers innerhalb der deutsch-japanischen Beziehungen nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg”, published in: Irene... more
This Japanese paper is a translation of an earlier German article titled “Karl Haushofer und die Geopolitik in Japan. Zur Bedeutung Haushofers innerhalb der deutsch-japanischen Beziehungen nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg”, published in: Irene Diekmann et al. (eds.), Geopolitik. Grenzgänge im Zeitgeist, Vol. 2, Potsdam: Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, 2000, pp. 591-629.
54
 

lundi, 21 juillet 2014

Nantes: Samourai

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00:05 Publié dans Evénement, Traditions | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : événement, nantes, samourai, japon, traditions | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

dimanche, 15 juin 2014

Kamikazes

L’opposition entre la culture occidentale prônant le libre arbitre et l’obligation de se donner la mort en mission commandée a ouvert la porte à l’irrationalité et au romantisme. Leur dernière nuit était un déchirement, mais tous ont su trouver la force de sourire avant le dernier vol. Kasuga Takeo (86 ans), dans une lettre au docteur Umeazo Shôzô, apporte un témoignage exceptionnel sur les dernières heures des kamikazes : « Dans le hall où se tenait leur soirée d’adieu la nuit précédant leur départ, les jeunes étudiants officiers buvaient du saké froid. Certains avalaient le saké en une gorgée, d’autres en engloutissaient une grande quantité. Ce fut vite le chaos. Il y en avait qui cassaient des ampoules suspendues avec leurs sabres. D’autres qui soulevaient les chaises pour casser les fenêtres et déchiraient les nappes blanches. Un mélange de chansons militaires et de jurons emplissaient l’air. Pendant que certains hurlaient de rage, d’autres pleuraient bruyamment. C’était leur dernière nuit de vie. Ils pensaient à leurs parents et à la femme qu’ils aimaient….Bien qu’ils fussent censés être prêts à sacrifier leur précieuse jeunesse pour l’empire japonais et l’empereur le lendemain matin, ils étaient tiraillés au-delà de toute expression possible…Tous ont décollé au petit matin avec le bandeau du soleil levant autour de la tête. Mais cette scène de profond désespoir a rarement été rapportée. »

Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikazes, Fleurs de cerisier et Nationalismes, éditions Hermann, 2013, 580 p., 38 euros.

Ex: http://zentropaville.tumblr.com

mercredi, 04 juin 2014

JAPON COLONIAL

JAPON COLONIAL (1880-1930) - Les voix de la dissension (1880-1930)
JAPON COLONIAL (1880-1930)
 
Les voix de la dissension (1880-1930)

Rémy Valat
Ex: http://metamag.fr
 
L'adhésion à la politique japonaise d’expansion coloniale en Asie n’était pas unanime. Très tôt, des intellectuels s'élevèrent contre cette tendance impérialiste : des universitaires, journalistes ou militants émirent des avis critiques et incisifs, parfois pertinents sur l'orientation suivie par leur gouvernement. Ces voix de la dissension nous ont laissé une trace matérielle, et c'est tout à l'honneur du Groupe de Genève, dirigé par Pierre-François Souyri, professeur à l'université de Genève, ancien directeur de la Maison Franco-japonaise de Tôkyô et spécialiste de l'histoire médiévale nippone, de nous les faire entendre. Chaque traduction est précédée d'une brève présentation de son auteur et de ses idées. Ces documents sont un témoignage de la pluralité des opinions au Japon et de l'engagement personnel des opposants dans un contexte de montée en puissance du militarisme et d'une forte censure dont le conformisme et la pression sociale étaient peut-être le terreau.
 
La période étudiée s'arrête à l'année 1930, après cette date, la politique impériale en Asie change de visage : la Chine et les zones du sud-est asiatiques et des îles du pacifique sont occupées militairement et font l'objet d'une exploitation économique. Le Japon est déjà entré dans la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Avant cette date, la jeune nation japonaise menait une politique extérieure de rupture en adoptant le « système westphalien », la vision européenne du droit et des relations internationales. Le Japon clarifia la situation et annexa les territoires sur lesquels sa souveraineté était jusqu’alors partielle ou théorique ( Hokkaidô, archipel des Ryûkyû ) ; leurs populations fut soumises à un statut particulier les soumettant à un régime semi-colonial. S’ensuivit une politique d’annexion consécutives aux fulgurantes victoires militaires japonaises contre la Chine et la Russie : le Japon étend sa souveraineté à la Corée, à Taïwan et à la partie méridionale de Sakhaline ( 1895-1910 ), puis à la Mandchourie ( 1931 ).

Les dirigeants du Japon ont embrassé et imité les règles régissant les relations internationales occidentales, ont réagi par la force à la politique de la canonnière et bâti un empire colonial asiatique : pour les thuriféraires du Grand Japon et quelques intellectuels ( le plus connu est Nakae Chômin, 1847-1901 ) arguent à juste titre d’une « hypocrisie » et d'une « voracité » occidentale en inédéquation avec leurs discours officiels. Les opposants, eux aussi, ont adopté une pensée inspirée des idées et des courants politiques européens ( anarchisme, marxisme, droit-de-l’hommisme, indigénophiles ). Nous retrouvons au Japon, à peu près les mêmes arguments, entre partisans et opposants à la politique coloniale française. Parmi les seconds, Fukuzawa Yukichi ( 1835-1901 ), défend le rôle d’un Japon civilisateur qui s’imposerait pacifiquement comme le chef intellectuel ( voire spirituel ) de l’Asie ( il est vrai que le Japon a été le pôle d’attraction de nombreux intellectuels chinois et coréens jusqu’à ce que sa politique extérieure se radicalise ). Beaucoup prônaient en réalité une politique dite du « Petit Japon », pays démocratique, dont la vraie richesse serait celle de son peuple ; leur rêve est devenu la réalité du Japon contemporain. Ces hommes et ces femmes étaient-ils de visionnaires ? La guerre en Asie aurait-elle pu être évitée ? Difficile de croire le contraire, au regard de l’histoire des pays voisins du Japon : la présence occidentale et l’adoption mimétique de ses valeurs, dont le communisme, a bel et bien été à l’origine de conflits civils et inter-asiatiques.

Japon colonial,1880-1930 ; les voix de la dissension, par Pierre-François Souyri,  Editeur : Belles Lettres, Collection : Japon, Date de parution : 23/04/2014, 22 x 16 cm, 35€

Pour découvrir ou approfondir la question de la politique coloniale japonaise : Lionel Babicz, Le Japon face à la Corée à l’époque Meiji (Maisonneuve et Larose, 2002) et la traduction des Dialogues politiques entre trois ivrognes, de Nakae Chômin, CNRS éditions, 2008.

 

dimanche, 01 juin 2014

Japanese Politicians Hoping to Kick Start a Natural Gas Pipeline with the Russian Federation

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Japanese Politicians Hoping to Kick Start a Natural Gas Pipeline with the Russian Federation

Michiyo Tanabe and Nuray Lydia Oglu

Modern Tokyo Times

Ex: http://moderntokyotimes.com

If America is taken out of the equation in relation to geopolitical meddling then Japan and the Russian Federation would have a blooming relationship based on mutual shared interests. These interests apply to greater cultural interaction, economic development, geopolitical issues, greater partnership in the area of energy and other natural resources, closer military ties – and other powerful areas. Therefore, it is hoped that the government of Prime Minister Abe will listen deeply to thirty-three Japanese lawmakers that desire a new important gas pipeline that will link both nations.

Lee Jay Walker at Modern Tokyo Times states: “Indeed, the Russian Federation in the area of energy and natural resources is of major significance to all nations in Northeast Asia. This reality is abundantly clear to China and this also ties in with Central Asia where the influence of the Russian Federation remains significant, to say the least. Of course, for China the military angle and space technology in relation to the Russian Federation is also of major importance for the power brokers in Beijing. Likewise, both North Korea and South Korea understand the importance of developing good relations with Moscow. Indeed, unlike other nations throughout the region, the Russian Federation is viewed to be a neutral power throughout the region whereby political elites in Moscow can play a very important role in times of tension throughout Northeast Asia.”

The proposed new gas pipeline will link the Sakhalin Island (Russian Federation) with the prefecture of Ibaraki (Japan). Obviously, this will boost the regional economy of Northern Japan and Ibaraki because many companies will gain in various ways. Also, given the internal crisis in Japan in the area of energy in relation to the nuclear crisis that erupted after a powerful 9.0-magnitude earthquake triggered a brutal tsunami; then clearly the thirty-three Japanese lawmakers have a valid point. Not only this, with the Russian Federation signing a major energy deal with China then it is equally essential that Japan increases its economic, political and geopolitical interests with power brokers based in Moscow.

Naokazu Takemoto, an influential individual within the lawmakers group, is making it known that he will discuss this issue with the leader of Japan. It also bodes well that the leaders of Japan and the Russian Federation have a firm relationship therefore it is hoped that Abe will not succumb to any possible meddling from Washington. After all, while Japan and America have a special relationship it is equally clear that you should never put all your eggs in one basket. Therefore, Japan needs to focus on developing stronger ties with the Russian Federation and likewise political elites in Moscow must become more understanding of the interests of Japan.

President Vladimir Putin is scheduled to visit Japan this autumn therefore it is a great opportunity for both leaders to cement ties between both nations to a much higher degree. This reality means that Takemoto needs to build up fresh momentum and it is hoped that other Japanese lawmakers will come on board. The deal may appear minor after China and the Russian Federation recently agreed to a $400 billion deal whereby Russia’s gas will help to boost the economy of China by enabling a natural flow of energy to this nation over the next 30 years in this deal. Despite this, the $5.9 billion plan being proposed between Japan and the Russian Federation may unleash other fresh projects in the near future.

In the last three years after the nuclear crisis in Fukushima it is known that spending on liquefied imports of natural gas is now just over double the costs of pre-March 11. Of course, the Ministry of Finance fully understands the need to implement a new energy policy in order to meet the demands of business companies. It is hoped that Abe will listen to Takemoto and all members of the group that supports a deal between Japan and the Russian Federation.

In another article by Modern Tokyo Times it was stated: “The Russian Federation is a binding force in uniting Eurasia and Central Asia therefore political elites in Tokyo need to focus on geopolitics and national interests. At the same time, with China and Japan relations being frosty to say the least it is clear that Moscow desires to be an honest broker. Likewise, the Korean Peninsula is very complex but once more the Russian Federation is viewed positively because of being diplomatic towards all regional powers. Similarly, Northern Japan needs greater economic investment and the natural linkages between the Russian Far East and Northern Japan is clear for all to see. Therefore, the above realities and the significance of energy issues and other natural resources that Japan needs must be weighed up heavily by political elites in Tokyo.”

The Foreign Minister of Japan, Fumio Kishida, commented in the past that “… Cooperation between Japan and Russia, as key players in the Pacific Ocean region, is important for fortifying peace and stability in the region.”

Therefore, it is hoped that the thirty-three Japanese lawmakers within the ruling parties of Japan will impact greatly on Abe. After all, Japan must always put national interests first rather than succumbing to the whims of America.

Lee Jay Walker gave support to both main writers

leejay@moderntokyotimes.com

mardi, 20 mai 2014

Les mythes d'argile

Les mythes d'argile

« Avec ses 440 000 sites identifiés environs,
le Japon est une des nations
à avoir accumulé le plus de matériaux
et de renseignements sur son passé
et investi considérablement dans ce domaine.
Comme le souligne Pierre Vial, dans la préface du livre,
c’est une “vraie volonté politique identitaire ”!
»

Entretien avec Rémy Valat, auteur de Les Mythes d’argile (éditions Dualpha)

(Propos recueillis par Fabrice Dutilleul)

Pourquoi un livre sur la religion des peuples mésolithiques du Japon ?

Couv-Mythes-Argile-e.jpgC’est un coup de foudre et peut-être une « nostalgie des origines ». De parents breton et aveyronnais, grande a été ma surprise de découvrir au Japon des mégalithes et autres tumuli de l’Âge du Bronze, la période kofun  (300 av JC-645 ap. JC). J’ai cependant choisi d’aborder une période plus ancienne, le Mésolithique ou période Jômon. Le Mésolithique est une étape essentielle de l’aventure humaine, car c’est la période durant laquelle les hommes se sont sédentarisés pour exploiter les ressources alimentaires, favorisant le contrôle et le stockage des moyens de subsistance. Surtout d’un point de vue religieux, l’angle choisi pour mieux connaître ces populations de chasseurs-cueilleurs inventeurs de la poterie, le Jômon paraît être le moment où le Mythe de la Création nippon serait apparu. Les traces matérielles, et en particuliers les artefacts religieux, statuettes d’argile et autres pierres phalliformes, sont les indicateurs probants de rites, véhiculant des croyances, exprimées par ce mythe. La culture Jômon a une parenté spirituelle avec les autres traditions des populations pratiquant la domestication des plantes, dont les mythologies associent plantes alimentaires et mise en scène du sacrifice d’un être divin (les primo-populations du Pacifique et, plus proche du Japon, de Chine).

Comment saisir alors l’âme et l’identité de ses peuples disparus ?

Grâce à Mircéa Eliade, bien sûr ! La somme eladienne est un décryptage des grands principes du fait religieux : de portée universelle, elle contient les données utiles à la compréhension du phénomène dans sa globalité. Mircea Eliade avait compris la vanité d’expliquer la propension humaine (souvent inconsciente) pour le Sacré, dont les manifestations et le mode d’être n’existent que sur leur propre plan de référence. Pour révéler la fractale, la structure et la logique de la mosaïque religieuse, l’herméneutique multidisciplinaire eladienne reste un outil à mon avis encore inégalé, bien que critiqué à des fins partisanes. Une méthode reposant sur des sources exceptionnelles : l’investissement du gouvernement japonais est exemplaire. Avec ses 440 000 sites identifiés environs, le Japon est une des nations à avoir accumulé le plus de matériaux et de renseignements sur son passé et investi considérablement dans ce domaine. Comme le souligne Pierre Vial, dans la préface du livre, c’est une « vraie volonté politique identitaire » ! Si les interprétations historiques sont scientifiquement plurielles, les Japonais ont fait le choix de s’approprier Leur histoire ; c’est un choix métapolitique. Un choix qui assure la stabilité d’un pays qui mêle à la fois ultramodernité et tradition. Une réalité porteuse d’espoir, pour nous identitaires français et européens : le rêve est possible. Les « rêveurs de jour sont des hommes dangereux » disait Lawrence d’Arabie.

Les Mythes d’argile, Rémy Valat, préface de Pierre Vial, L’Æncre, collection « Patrimoine des religions » dirigée par Philippe Randa, 248 pages, 31 euros.

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jeudi, 15 mai 2014

Les ressorts psychologiques des pilotes Tokkôtai

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Manipulation esthétique et romantisme

Les ressorts psychologiques des pilotes Tokkôtai

Kamikazes, fleurs de cerisiers et nationalismes

Rémy Valat
Ex: http://metamag.fr

花は桜木人は武士(hana wa sakuragi hito wa bushi).

« La fleur des fleurs est le cerisier, la fleur des hommes est le guerrier. »


Les éditions Hermann ont eu la bonne idée de publier le livre d’Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikazes, Fleurs de cerisier et Nationalismes, paru précédemment en langue anglaise aux éditions des universités de Chicago (2002) sous le titre Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms : The Militarization of Aesthetics in Japanese History. La traduction de cette étude magistrale est de Livane Pinet Thélot (revue par Xavier Marie). Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney enseigne l’anthropologie à l'université du Wisconsin ; elle est une spécialiste réputée du Japon. Sa carrière académique est exceptionnelle : elle est présidente émérite de la section de culture moderne à la Bibliothèque du Congrès de Washington, membre de l’Avancées de Paris et de l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences. 

Kamikazes, Fleurs de cerisier et Nationalismes n’est pas une histoire de bataille. L’auteure s’est intéressée aux manipulations esthétiques et symboliques de la fleur de cerisier par les pouvoirs politiques et militaires des ères Meiji, Taishô et Shôwa jusqu’en 1945. La floraison des cerisiers appartient à la culture archaïque japonaise, elle était associée à la fertilité, au renouveau printanier, à la vie. L’éphémère présence de ces fleurs blanches s’inscrivait dans le calendrier des rites agricoles, lesquels culminaient à l’automne avec la récolte du riz, et étaient le prétexte à libations d’alcool de riz (saké) et festivités. Au fil des siècles, les acteurs politiques et sociaux ont octroyé une valeur différente au cerisier : l’empereur pour se démarquer de l’omniprésente culture chinoise et de sa fleur symbole, celle du prunier ; les samouraïs et les nationalistes pour souligner la fragilité de la vie du guerrier, et, surtout pour les seconds, institutionnaliser une esthétique valorisant la mort et le sacrifice. Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney nous révèle l’instrumentalisation des récits, des traditions et des symboles nippons, ayant pour toile de fond et acteurs des cerisiers et des combattants : le Manyôshû (circa 755 ap. JC), un recueil de poèmes mettant en scène les sakimori (garde-frontières en poste au nord de Kyûshû et sur les îles de Tsushima et d’Iki) ont été expurgés des passages trop humains où les hommes exprimaient leur affection pour leurs proches de manière à mettre en avant la fidélité à l’empereur.  L’épisode des pilotes tokkôtai survint à la fin de la guerre du Pacifique et atteint son paroxysme au moment où le Japon est victime des bombardements américains et Okinawa envahi. Ces missions suicides ont marqué les esprits (c’était l’un des objectifs de l’état-major impérial) et donné une image négative du combattant japonais, dépeint comme un « fanatique »... Avec une efficacité opérationnelle faible, après l’effet de surprise de Leyte (où 20,8% des navires ont été touchés), le taux des navires coulés ou endommagés serait de 11,6%....Tragique hasard de l’Histoire, la bataille d’Okinawa s’est déroulée au moment de la floraison des cerisiers, donnant une touche romantique à cette irrationnelle tragédie, durant laquelle le Japon va sacrifier la fine fleur de sa jeunesse.

suzuki.jpgFine fleur, car ces jeunes hommes, un millier environ, étaient des étudiants provenant des meilleures universités du pays, promus hâtivement officiers-pilotes pour une mission sans retour. 3843 pilotes (estimation maximale incluant toutes les catégories socio-professionnelles et classes d’âge) sont morts en tentant de s’écraser sur un bâtiment de guerre américain. L’étude des journaux intimes de ces jeunes kamikazes, journaux parfois entamés plusieurs années auparavant constitue une source inestimable car elle permet de cerner l’évolution psychologique et philosophique des futurs pilotes. L’analyse, centrée sur 5 cas, révèle que l’intériorisation de la propagande militaire et impériale était imparfaite, individualisée. Toutefois, le panel étudié (5%de la population) est la principale faiblesse de l’argumentation d’Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (l’auteure aurait eu des difficultés à trouver des sources originales et complètes). Il ressort de son analyse que peu de pilotes, dont aucun n’était probablement volontaire, aurait réellement adhéré à l’idéologie officielle. Ironie, les étudiants-pilotes étaient pétris de  culture : la « génération Romain Rolland » (lire notre recension du livre de Michael Lucken, Les Japonais et la guerre).


L’opposition entre la culture occidentale prônant le libre arbitre et l’obligation de se donner la mort en mission commandée a ouvert la porte à l’irrationalité et au romantisme. Leur dernière nuit était un déchirement, mais tous ont su trouver la force de sourire avant le dernier vol. Kasuga Takeo (86 ans), dans une lettre au docteur Umeazo Shôzô, apporte un témoignage exceptionnel sur les dernières heures des kamikazes : « Dans le hall où se tenait leur soirée d’adieu la nuit précédant leur départ, les jeunes étudiants officiers buvaient du saké froid. Certains avalaient le saké en une gorgée, d’autres en engloutissaient une grande quantité. Ce fut vite le chaos. Il y en avait qui cassaient des ampoules suspendues avec leurs sabres. D’autres qui soulevaient les chaises pour casser les fenêtres et déchiraient les nappes blanches. Un mélange de chansons militaires et de jurons emplissaient l’air. Pendant que certains hurlaient de rage, d’autres pleuraient bruyamment. C’était leur dernière nuit de vie. Ils pensaient à leurs parents et à la femme qu’ils aimaient....Bien qu’ils fussent censés être prêts à sacrifier leur précieuse jeunesse pour l’empire japonais et l’empereur le lendemain matin, ils étaient tiraillés au-delà de toute expression possible...Tous ont décollé au petit matin avec le bandeau du soleil levant autour de la tête. Mais cette scène de profond désespoir a rarement été rapportée. » (pp. 292-293).


Quel sens donner à leur sacrifice ?

 
Outre celui de protéger leurs proches, l’idée de régénération est forte. Un Japon nouveau, épuré des corruptions de l’Occident (matérialisme, égoïsme, capitalisme, modernité) germerait de leur sublime et suprême offrande. La méconnaissance (source d’interprétations multiples) et l’archaïsme du symbole a, semble-t-il, éveillé et mobilisé des sentiments profonds et primitifs, et pourtant ô combien constitutifs de notre humanité. Ironie encore, ce sont contre des bâtiments américains que viennent périr ces jeunes hommes, ces « bâtiments noirs, venus la première fois en 1853, obligeant le Japon à faire face aux défis de l’Occident et de la mondialisation. Il ne faut pas oublier que l’ultranationalisme japonais est une réponse à ce défi... Le Japon ne s’est pas laissé coloniser comme la Chine ; les guerres de l’opium ont donné à réfléchir aux élites japonaises. Mieux, les Japonais ont su s’armer, réfléchir et chercher le meilleur moyen de retourner les armes de l’agresseur. Le Japon a été un laboratoire intellectuel intense, et le communisme, idéologie sur laquelle la Chine habillera son nationalisme, est un import du pays du Soleil Levant... Ernst Nolte explique les excès du nazisme comme une réaction au danger communiste (La guerre civile européenne) : il en est de même au Japon. La menace des navires américains est un retour à l’acte fondateur du nationalisme nippon expliquerait l’irrationalité des actes de mort volontaire...


Le livre d’Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, qui professe aux Ėtats-Unis, est remarquable, mais peut-être marqué par l’esprit du vainqueur. « Ce qui est regrettable par-dessus tout, écrit-elle (p. 308), c’est que la majorité de la population ait oublié les victimes de la guerre. Ces dernières sont tombées dans les oubliettes de l’histoire, ont été recouvertes par la clameur des discussions entre les libéraux et l’extrême-droite, au lieu d’être le rappel de la culpabilité de la guerre que chaque Japonais devrait partager ». La culpabilité (la repentance) est une arme politique ne l’oublions pas : une arme qui sert peut-être à garder le Japon sous influence américaine, car même si le Japon s’achemine vers une « normalisation » de sa politique et de ses moyens de défense, l’interdépendance des industries d’armement et de communication ainsi que l’instrumentalisation du débat sur la Seconde Guerre mondiale en Asie entravent le processus d’une totale indépendance politique de ce pays. Si les Japonais devraient partager la culpabilité des victimes de la guerre ? Qui doit partager celles des bombardements de Tôkyô, de Hiroshima et de Nagasaki ? Enfin, on ignore l’état d’esprit de ce qui ont le plus sincèrement adhéré à l’idéologie impériale au point de sacrifier leurs vies pour elle (Nogi Maresuke, Onishi Takijiro, fondateur des escadrilles tokkôtai, pour les plus illustres). Orages d’acier ou À l’Ouest rien de nouveau, deux expériences et deux visions, radicalement opposées, sur une même guerre...


Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikazes, Fleurs de cerisier et Nationalismes, éditions Hermann, 2013, 580 p., 38 euros.

mardi, 29 avril 2014

Will Japan and Russia Escape the New Cold War?

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Will Japan and Russia Escape the New Cold War?

TRENIN, Dmitri

Ex: http://valdaiclub.com

 

As Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov was visiting Beijing last week, it was announced that the visit to Moscow by Japan's foreign minister Fumio Kishida was being postponed. The announcement, of course, came amid the rising tensions in Ukraine and the continuing fundamental deterioration of the West's relations with Russia. Japan, after all, is a loyal ally of the United States.

Yet, both Tokyo and Moscow have gone to some lengths to limit the damage. The joint announcement was couched in most polite phrases. The Russian foreign ministry spokesman, Alexander Lukashevich, allowed no criticism in his public comments on the postponement decision. Clearly, with the threats of economic sanctions against Russia still on the table in Washington and in EU capitals, even after the recent Geneva agreement on Ukraine, Moscow looks to Tokyo to make up for the likely losses in Europe and North America.

Japan's Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, for his part, has not yet given up on Russia. As a geopolitical thinker, he needs Russia in an effort to balance China's rise. As a pragmatist, he thinks of going beyond simply importing energy from Russia, and seeks a stake in Russia's energy projects. As a strategist, he does not want Moscow to step up too much the technological level of its arms transfers to China's People's Liberation Army, by delivering, in particular, the S-400 air defense systems. Ideally, Shinzo Abe would also want to become the prime minister to finally resolve the almost 70-year-old territorial issue between Tokyo and Moscow.

None of this is going to be easy, but none of this is totally impossible either-provided the Japanese do their part by becoming what Germany, until recently, has been to Russia: a major technological partner, a leading investor, and a gateway to the wider region. Doing this will be exceedingly difficult, of course, in the current environment of intensifying U.S.-Russian rivalry. However, Abe may have a few useful arguments to offer to President Barack Obama when he comes to Tokyo.

Why should the US-Russian rivalry be allowed to strengthen Beijing? Who benefits when the United States is less comfortable and Japan feels less safe? In this new cold period in Russian-Western relations, there are already a few protected areas of collaboration, like non-proliferation. Why not a vibrant Japan-Russia link too? After all, wasn't it the one missing piece, even a strategic oversight in the original U.S. "pivot to Asia" concept?

Dmitri Trenin is Director of the Carnegie Moscow Center.

This article was originally published on www.carnegie.ru

mardi, 04 février 2014

Is Japan Losing its Independence?

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Record Trade Deficit in Japan and Nuclear Reality: Is Japan Losing its Independence?

Noriko Watanabe and Walter Sebastian

Ex: http://moderntokyotimes.com

The anti-nuclear lobby in Japan and the mass media in this nation on a whole continue to focus on the negative side of nuclear power stations. Not surprisingly, the government of Japan is dithering about this issue just like other important areas – for example the declining birth rate. However, Japan can’t afford to maintain its current energy policy because it is hindering the economy too much. Either Japan must re-focus on nuclear energy which helped in the modernization of this nation in the post-war period – or, Japan must bite the bullet and formulate an alternative energy policy and quickly.

The Ministry of Finance announced earlier this week that the trade deficit in 2013 reached a record figure. This should set off alarm bells in the corridors of power because the $112 billion dollar trade deficit will put enormous strains on the economy. After all, with no real energy policy existing currently in Japan, then it seem more than feasible that the next few years will follow the same pattern.

Issues related to the nuclear crisis in Japan appear to have been blown up out of all proportion. After all, the huge loss of life occurred because of the brutal tsunami that followed the massive 9.0-magnitude earthquake on March 11 in 2011. This isn’t meant to belittle the trauma caused to the local area in Fukushima because within a certain zone it is clear that problems continue to exist. However, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear crisis is more based on bad management, the age of the plant, deficiencies within the planning mechanisms of this nuclear plant, lack of accountability, limited safety mechanisms – and other areas of importance. Of course, the earthquake triggered the tsunami but the nuclear crisis that erupted was based on human failure when faced with the brutal reality of nature.

Vojin Joksimovich, nuclear specialist and writer at Modern Tokyo Times, stated last year: Japan has few natural resources and imports about 84% of its energy requirements. Nuclear power has been a national strategic priority since 1973. The country’s 54 nuclear plants have provided some 30% of the nation’s electricity. This was expected to increase to 40% by 2017 and to 50% by 2030. Japan has a fuel cycle capability including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle and waste minimization. Shutdowns of 48 units capable of generating electricity have resulted in soaring fossil fuel, mostly LNG imports. Five nuclear utilities have been compelled to raise electricity rates: household rates 8.5-11.9%; commercial rates 14.2-19.2%.” 

“According to the NASA climate change study, summarized in the May 2013 issue of the Nuclear News, using nuclear power to generate electricity instead of burning fossil fuels prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution deaths and 64 billion metric tons of CO2- equivalent greenhouse gas emissions between 1971 and 2009. In the time frame 2000-2009 the nuclear plants prevented on average 76,000 deaths/year. It appears that the NRA has ignored these types of considerations, while pursuing the absolute safety quest for the nuclear plants.” 

In the same article Vojin Joksimovich says: “There is now abundance of evidence showing that the worst accident in the history of commercial nuclear power has not harmed the Japanese public. The University of Oxford physics professor Wade Allison, author of the remarkable book Radiation and Reason: The Impact of Science on a Culture of Fear, testifying in the British House of Commons in December of 2011, was the first one to tell the world that the accident has not harmed the Japanese public: “No acute fatalities, no acute injuries, no extended hospitalizations due to radiation, unlikely cancer fatalities in 50 years.”

“World Health Organization (WHO) report followed: “Low risk to population, no observable health effects.”United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) report, with contributions from 80 international experts, says: “No immediate health effects, unlikely health effects in future among general public and vast majority of workers.” Most Japanese were exposed to additional radiation less than natural background level of 2.1mSv/yr. The report concludes that observable effects are attributable to stresses of evacuation and unwarranted fear of radiation. This means that the most serious health effects were not caused by radiation but by fear of it by the Japanese authorities. Lastly the Fukushima Medical University (FMU) is conducting a health management survey of all 2 million Fukushima Prefecture residents. Thus far the maximum dose received was only 19mSv. This writer, while in a local hospital, has received doses of 30-40mSv from CT scans. It means that he has received higher dose than ~99% of the Japanese population from the Daiichi accident.”

Now Japan is stuck by either adopting a pragmatic nuclear policy based on modernizing the entire system and implementing tougher standards – or to continue with importing dirty energy at a negative cost in terms of health related issues and hindering the economy. Of course, Japan could try to radically alter its energy policy by implementing a policy that boosts alternative energy – the effects and costs remain debatable. However, the current status quo of relying on expensive imported fossil fuels to bridge the non-existent energy policy isn’t viable.

The huge deficit is based on increasing imports that followed in the wake of the March 11 9.0-magnitude earthquake that triggered the tsunami and nuclear crisis in Fukushima. Since this period, imports continue to rise in relation to the demand of fossil fuels. Therefore, despite exports rising in Japan to nearly 10% in 2013, it is clear that the import imbalance, weak yen and the reliance on fossil fuels are all hitting the economy hard.

Forbes says: A surge in Japanese fossil fuel demand following the Fukushima nuclear crisisin 2011 pushed imports to their highest-ever level of 81.26 trillion yen.”

“In other words, steep post-Fukushima energy bills are taking a toll on Japan’s economy.”

“Prior to the Fukushima fiasco, nuclear reactors supplied a third of Japan’s electric demand.”

Lee Jay Walker at Modern Tokyo Times says: “The yen will continue to feel the effects of the current account deficit and if this isn’t addressed then traders may well sell off more yen. This in turn will have an adverse effect on import costs thereby creating a downward economic spiral. Therefore, given the reality that exports reached a near 10% increase last year, it is clear that Japan needs to address its energy policy along with other essential areas related to the economy.”

Akira Amari, Fiscal and Economic Policy Minister, is extremely anxious about the deficit. He warns that unless this issue is addressed then Japan “may become like the United States in depending on other countries for its financial funds.”

If the above scenario happens then Japan will further lose its independence and this also applies to the nuclear angle. After all, the development of the nuclear sector was an area of self-reliance given the overall weakness of Japan in relation to natural energy resources. Now, however, Japan is beholden to more imported fossil fuels; the nation relies on America for protecting the nation state in relation to the armed forces of this nation being stationed in Japan; while imported foodstuffs are a natural fact of life; and if the trade deficit continues then soon Japan may rely on foreign nations for funds. Therefore, the current leader of Japan needs to focus on a proper energy policy because the current status quo is undermining the economy along with other negative ills.

Lee Jay Walker gave guidance to both main writers

http://www.forbes.com/sites/williampentland/2014/01/27/the-cost-of-misguided-energy-policies-japans-record-trade-deficit/

http://www.moderntokyotimes.com/2013/07/16/restart-of-japanese-nuclear-plants-politically-correct-radiophobia-harms-the-general-public/

leejay@moderntokyotimes.com

http://moderntokyotimes.com

samedi, 01 février 2014

Les Ainu et la politique des minorités ethniques au Japon

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Les Ainu et la politique des minorités ethniques au Japon

par Rémy VALAT

« Le Japon est un peuple ethniquement et culturellement homogène », telle est l’idée dominante, héritée de la mythologie et de l’idéologie politiques modernes – qui a longtemps prévalu dans ce pays. À ce titre, pendant la période d’expansion coloniale en Asie (1895 – 1945), les populations ethniquement non japonaises ont été assimilées par la force (les habitants des îles Ryûkyû – l’actuelle préfecture d’Okinawa – et les Ainu) ou réduites au travail forcé (Coréens). D’autres minorités sont le résultat des migrations internationales contemporaines et de divisions culturelles au sein même de la société japonaise.

 

Survol sur les minorités au Japon

 

Le Japon est le « pays des dieux », un pays unique peuplé par une race homogène : une interprétation courante des groupes ethniques et des nations souhaitant se singulariser par rapport aux autres. Cette vision est défendue par les politiques et longtemps soutenue par la communauté scientifique qui défendait la thèse d’une « japonéité » se fondant sur une explication biologique, servant de prétexte à une appartenance communautaire reposant sur le « droit du sang ».

 

Toutefois, il existe des disparités au sein même de la population de même sang, une « caste » a pendant longtemps été reléguée : les Burakumin (ou « gens des hameaux » – sous-entendu « spéciaux »). Les personnes (et leurs collatéraux) exerçant des métiers « impurs » d’un point de vue religieux, parce qu’en relation avec la chair morte ou la mort, voire pour le caractère itinérant de leur profession (forains), ont été mises au ban de la société (comme les comédiens ou les bourreaux de la société française d’Ancien Régime). La discrimination à l’encontre de ces individus est en voie de disparition. D’autres Japonais, les victimes des bombes atomiques américaines, ont aussi été considérées avec un certain mépris, comme l’attesterait des enquêtes menées sur les demandes en mariage ou les demandes d’aides sociales (travail, assurance maladie), peut-être en raison de la visibilité de leurs blessures, qui serait une sorte de rappel d’un passé que l’on souhaiterait oublier.

 

La logique des vertus de l’homogénéité ethnique a été mise à mal par l’expérience d’un retour au pays de descendants d’émigrants japonais, les « personnes de lignée japonaise » (Nikkeijin). Ces derniers ont bénéficié – pendant la phase de reconstruction et d’essor économique de l’après-guerre – d’une politique favorable d’immigration, en réalité une politique officieuse d’immigration choisie. Ils seraient, à l’heure actuelle, environ 700 000 résidents permanents. Beaucoup sont revenus d’Amérique latine (principalement du Brésil), où ils ont servi de main-d’œuvre dans les plantations de café, des États-Unis, où ils ont été victimes de sévères lois sur l’immigration et – après la déclaration de guerre avec le Japon – de persécutions et d’internement dans des camps, et des Philippines. Ces « Japonais de sang » ont également été soumis, à leur arrivée, à un statut particulier (titre de résident temporaire, logement dans des quartiers réservés) et connaissent de nos jours une crise d’identité, mais aussi des difficultés d’insertion, notamment du fait de leur acculturation et, parfois d’une maîtrise insuffisante de la langue.

 

Ainu-People-2.jpgAvec les Ainu, objet de cet article, les 1,4 million d’habitants des îles Ryûkyû (actuelle préfecture d’Okinawa, annexée en 1879, puis occupée par l’armée étatsunienne entre 1945 et 1972) ont aussi bénéficié d’un statut particulier, parce que peuple autochtone. Engagés dans la lutte pour la rétrocession de l’île au Japon, les habitants d’Okinawa ont vu leur niveau de vie nettement amélioré, bien qu’encore inférieur à celui des autres préfectures japonaises.

 

La principale minorité issue de l’immigration est d’origine coréenne (700 000 personnes en 2005), qualifiés de « Ceux qui sont au Japon » (Zainichi). Cette communauté est venue sur le sol national japonais, lors de l’annexion de leur pays (1910 – 1945). Traités avec mépris, ces travailleurs – d’abord volontaires – puis soumis au travail obligatoire vivaient dans des espaces réservés (buraku) et ont mêmes été victimes de massacres collectifs : en 1923, dans les circonstances difficiles du tremblement de terre, bon nombre ont été tués par les Tôkyôites qui les ont accusés d’avoir empoisonné l’eau de consommation courante. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, ils seront enrôlés de force, selon un système proche du Service du travail obligatoire allemand (S.T.O.). En 1945, plus de 2 millions de Coréens retourneront dans la péninsule, 600 000 resteront au Japon, mais privés de nationalité jusqu’en 1965 (ils deviendront « Sud-Coréens » en 1965). Le Japon compte aussi une minorité chinoise, d’immigrants venus des pays littoraux ou insulaires de l’Océan Indien et du Pacifique et un faible nombre de ressortissants des pays occidentaux, principalement nord-américains.

 

Ce tableau mérite cependant d’être nettement tempéré, car depuis l’ouverture du Japon sur le monde et la pacification de ces mœurs politiques en Asie, ce pays, doté d’une Constitution réellement démocratique, est progressivement devenu une terre d’accueil pour les étrangers (principalement asiatiques, des Chinois et des Coréens, soit 57 % des résidents étrangers au Japon), en raison du changement des mentalités et du besoin d’immigration, engendré par le vieillissement de la population : les étrangers représentent 2 % de la population totale, et leur nombre a augmenté de 50 % depuis le début du deuxième millénaire. Les nouveaux venus sans qualifications ou ne maîtrisant pas la langue sont, comme dans tous les pays économiquement développés, bien souvent réduits aux tâches les moins valorisantes ou les plus pénibles (ce sont les trois « K » : kitsui, pénible; kitanai, sale; kiken, dangereux), mais de réelles possibilités d’intégration – y compris l’adoption de la nationalité japonaise – existent pour eux. Chaque année, 42 000 nouvelles unions, soit 6 % des mariages annuels au Japon, sont le fait de couples internationaux (dans 80 % des cas, l’époux est Japonais). Dans la réalité, le regard porté par les Japonais sur les minorités asiatiques a changé, en dépit de la persistance de discriminations réelles. Le Japon paraît être en transition et s’adapter avec prudence aux réalités migratoires, corollaire de la troisième mondialisation.

 

La culture ainu : origines et principales caractéristiques

 

L’origine des populations ainu serait Préhistorique : elle remonterait à la période Jômon (voir notre article sur ce sujet), et son origine exacte reste encore incertaine. Certains individus sont parfois morphologiquement différents des hommes de la période Jômon, leurs phénotypes ayant des caractéristiques pouvant les rattacher aux populations caucasiennes. La culture Jômon sera progressivement subjuguée par une nouvelle vague de migrants venue du continent à la période Yayoi (Ve siècle av. J.-C. – IIIe siècle ap. J.-C.), importatrice de technologies (riziculture et métallurgie) et d’une culture nouvelles : leurs descendants sont les Japonais. Les populations constitutives de la culture ainu étaient implantés dans la zone septentrionale insulaire de Hokkaidô, de Tôhoku, des Kouriles, de Sakhaline et du sud de la péninsulaire du Kamtchakta. Les spécialistes penchent désormais pour la cœxistence de plusieurs groupes ethniques différents répartis dans la partie septentrionale du Japon actuel : les Emishi (voir infra) – repoussés par les Japonais – venus du Nord du Tôhoku et du Sud-Ouest de Hokkaidô- se seraient amalgamés avec les populations existantes (Ashihase).

 

Au VIIIe siècle, les ethnies ainu se répartissent sur les îles Kouriles et Sakhaline. Dans les premières annales du Japon (le Kojiki et le Nihongi ou Nihonshoki), ces derniers sont dépeints comme appartenant à une ethnie différente, farouche et sont qualifiés de différents ethnonymes (dont celui d’Emishi) faisant référence à leur pilosité corporelle abondante. Ces populations se qualifient elles-mêmes de Ainu, qui signifie  : « être humain ».

 

La langue ainu est radicalement différente du japonais (qui appartient au groupe des langues altaïques – à l’instar du turc, du mongol, du toungouse et du coréen) aussi bien d’un point de vue syntaxique, phonologique, morphologique que du vocabulaire (comme la langue basque dans le Sud-Ouest de la France et en Espagne). Enfin, la culture ainu est une tradition orale, son système d’écriture repose sur des translittérations empruntées aux langues des civilisations russes (alphabet cyrillique) et japonaises (katakana). Plusieurs dialectes la composent, mais une langue commune, véhiculaire était compréhensible par tous les membres de la communauté, parce que réservée à la transmission culturelle, notamment des mythes. La langue ainu est en voie d’extinction, peut-être une quinzaine de locuteurs l’utiliseraient de nos jours.

 

La culture ainu a hérité de nombreuses pratiques de la période protohistorique, notamment le tatouage, les fondements de la religion, la chasse, mais avec une évolution singulière dans le temps, constitutrice d’une « identité ». La société ainu est restée pendant longtemps traditionnelle et proche de la nature : ce « retard » technologique par rapport à la Russie et au Japon l’a – à terme – marginalisée.

 

Les Ainu face à la colonisation japonaise dans un contexte politique et économique d’expansion impériale (1869 – 1945)

 

AinuManStilflied.JPG

Les Ainu se trouvaient, du point du vue des gouvernements successifs japonais, au-delà du « limes ». Si les clans du Tôhoku (Nord-Est de l’île d’Honshû) ont finalement adopté la culture dominante, les autres groupes ont longtemps offert une âpre résistance au front pionnier japonais. Dès la période de Heian, les marches de l’État japonais étaient administrées par un officier supérieur, chargé de soumettre les Emishi : le shôgun. Au XVe siècle, les Japonais commencent à s’implanter dans le Sud-Ouest de Hokkaidô (Ezochi, appellation ainu) et à repousser les populations locales vers le nord, mais celles-ci parviennent à faire refluer l’invasion, puis à renouer des relations économiques avec le Japon.

 

À l’époque d’Edo (1600 – 1867), la politique de fermeture adoptée par le shôgunat ne s’applique pas aux Ainu : ces derniers commercent abondamment avec les Chinois et les Russes. Mais, la progression russe d’Ouest en Est à travers l’Asie centrale vient se heurter aux intérêts japonais : les enjeux se cristallisent autour du contrôle de l’île Ezo (ancienne appellation de Hokkaidô). Le Bakufu renforce son emprise sur l’île en détruisant la résistance des populations autochtones (bataille de Knashiri-Menashi, 1789) : l’île est économiquement exploitée par le Japon, notamment pour la production d’engrais de harengs.

 

Une rupture s’opère au XVIIIe siècle, l’invasion russe du Nord des îles Kouriles et de Sakhaline (à partir de 1730) pousse le gouvernement japonais à poursuivre une politique d’assimilation des peuples indigènes pour justifier sa revendication territoriale (un traité russo-nippon fixe la frontière entre les deux États, traité de Shimoda, 1854 : la ligne de partage séparant les deux empires se situant entre les îles d’Urup et d’Etorofu, voir notre article sur le sujet).

 

La restauration impériale (1868) et l’essor économique et industriel sont accompagnés d’un accroissement de la population japonaise : bon nombre d’insulaires partent s’installer à l’étranger, notamment en Amérique du Sud. En 1869, l’île de Hokkaidô est annexée à l’Empire et la colonisation favorisée (une commission de colonisation est créée); en 1886, l’île devient une préfecture, avec un statut particulier. Les Ainu sont rapidement soumis à un régime d’exception, leur interdisant toute activité culturelle (tatouages, pratiques funéraires, etc.) et économique traditionnelle (pêche, chasse). La situation connaît une aggravation, lorsqu’un nouveau traité russo-japonais rattache toutes les îles Kouriles au Japon, en échange de l’actuelle Sakhaline (1875). Les Ainu de Sakhaline sont contraints de rejoindre Hokkaidô, où ils sont cantonnés dans des réserves.

 

La politique cœrcitive japonaise vise à transformer la population, paupérisée par l’accaparement des terres par des colons japonais, en agriculteurs. Une politique volontariste d’assimilation, oblige les enfants des familles ainu à se rendre dans des écoles spécifiques où les enseignements sont dispensés en langue japonaise, les mariages mixtes sont encouragés. Par ailleurs, la colonisation a des effets ravageurs sur les autochtones, marqués psychologiquement, d’aucuns sombrent dans l’alcool, d’autres périssent des maladies importées par les immigrants nippons.

 

Les Ainu sont peu à peu soumis à un statut particulier. La commission de Colonisation adopte officiellement le terme de kyudojin, qui signifie « anciens aborigènes » (1878). Plus tard, en 1899, une loi est votée par les représentants japonais pour « protéger » les Ainu, considérés comme une « race primitive sur le déclin ». La politique coloniale japonaise se calque ainsi sur la pensée occidentale, notamment les théories évolutionnistes alors en vogue, et mise au service d’une politique expansionniste. Les Ainu et leurs territoires sont devenus une sorte de musée, de « zoo humain » (déjà vu sous d’autres tropiques), que viennent étudier et photographier les anthropologues occidentaux : des Ainu sont mêmes présentés aux expositions internationales de Chicago (1904) et de Londres (1910)…

 

Les Ainu vivent dans une situation de grande précarité, et ce n’est pas l’exode massif de population de la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale (1,5 million de Japonais supplémentaires se rendent sur l’île d’Hokkaidô, poussés par l’avancée soviétique en extrême-Orient et dans les îles Kouriles) qui permit d’apporter une amélioration à leur sort…

 

La politique coloniale japonaise est, nous l’avons dit, une appropriation et une adaptation des politiques coloniales européennes. Les autorités japonaises, nous l’avons vu, se sont octroyés le « pouvoir de nommer » la population cible, afin de l’individualiser et d’en souligner l’altérité, voire de la « dévaloriser » (la référence à la pilosité et le statut d’aborigène, voir supra). Cette qualification (1878) a été une étape déterminante à la création d’un statut singulier (1899) justifiant les pratiques discriminatoires et répressives, processus que l’on retrouve dans toutes les colonisations. Le statut de kyudojin n’est pas sans rappeler celui de l’indigénat dans les colonies françaises d’Afrique ou celui des Indiens d’Amérique du Nord.

 

Ces mesures administratives sont à l’origine d’un mouvement de défense de la part des populations ainu, même si certains, convertis au christianisme, espèrent que l’assimilation leur permettra d’obtenir une égalité de droit avec les Japonais. En 1930, un mouvement associatif voit le jour et réclame la révision de la « loi discriminatoire » de 1899. En outre, le processus de démocratisation enclenché après la défaite du Japon (1945) créé un climat plus favorable pour le mouvement revendicatif, qui peut notamment faire référence à l’article 13 de la Constitution qui rendent illégales la discrimination et l’assimilation du peuple ainu.

 

Les nouvelles représentations du peuple ainu : l’acquisition d’une reconnaissance officielle sous regard international

(1945 à nos jours)

 

Les années 1960 marquent un tournant. Pendant cette période encore, l’image des Ainu est instrumentalisée : les guides touristiques, notamment francophone, décrivent les populations locales comme « une race frappée d’impuissance » (guide Nagel, 1964); des scientifiques japonais vont même jusqu’à leur nier toute aptitude technique propre (ce qu’invalide les découvertes archéologiques actuelles). À la fin de la décennie, en pleine phase contestataire au Japon (mouvements des habitants et mouvements contre les discriminations) et dans le monde (Mai 1968), les associations de défense de la communauté ainu donnent de la voix par des actions symboliques (protestations contre la commémoration du centenaire de la colonisation de Hokkaidô, notamment).

 

ainu-5.jpgEn 1968, le gouvernement japonais fait un pas en faveur de la communauté en révisant partiellement la loi de 1899 (sans en modifier le caractère discriminatoire) et en proposant des aides sociales.  S’inspirant des mouvements de revendications des peuples autochtones de par le monde et des mouvements anti-colonialistes de libération nationale, le mouvement revendicatif ainu adopte une stratégie internationale, se fondant sur la charte internationale des droits de l’Homme.

 

L’association des revendications à ces valeurs universelles oblige le gouvernement japonais, en pleine expansion économique bâtie sur une représentation pacifique du pays, à signer la Convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (1978) et le Pacte international sur les droits civils et politiques (1979) et à reconnaître les droits des minorités. Mais l’existence de ces dernières est niée, le Premier ministre Nakasone Yasuhiro ayant officiellement rappelé le caractère mono-ethnique du pays (1986). En 1987, des représentants de la communauté ainu sont admis au groupe de travail des Nations unies, ayant entamé une réflexion sur le sort des peuples autochtones : il en résulte, en 1989, que le gouvernement japonais établit un comité en charge d’examiner les différents points d’une future loi concernant le peuple ainu.

 

Placé sous les projecteurs de la communauté internationale, Tôkyô finit par attribuer le statut de minorité ethnique aux Ainu et l’image de ces derniers commence à évoluer favorablement au yeux de l’opinion japonaise : en 1994, Kayano Shigeru (1926 – 2006), un des responsables du mouvement de revendication entre au Sénat; en 1997, le gouvernement japonais abolit l’appellation de kyudojin et adopte une loi de valorisation de la culture ainu (loi sur le développement de la culture ainu et la diffusion et l’instruction de la connaissance concernant la tradition ainu). Cette loi fait suite à un contentieux administratif autour du projet de construction d’un barrage sur un site sacré ainu : le rendu de la cour de justice de Sapporo ayant reconnu le caractère sacré du lieu et rappelé les carences du gouvernement japonais en matière de protection de l’héritage culturel des Ainu, cette décision a pesé sur l’adoption de la loi de 1997. C’est le premier texte reconnaissant une minorité ethnique au Japon. La législation offre désormais la possibilité aux multiples manifestations culturelles d’être subventionnées, mais ne prend spécifiquement en charge les problèmes socio-économiques de la population cible et aucune autonomie politique n’est accordée (elle n’est d’ailleurs pas recherchée par les intéressés). Le gouvernement revendique toujours sa totale légitimité sur l’île d’Hokkaidô : le centre de promotion de la culture ainu, qui a ouvert ses portes à Sapporo en 2003 est administré par des fonctionnaires japonais et lors du classement de la péninsule de Shiretoko à l’inventaire du patrimoine naturel mondial, aucune référence n’a été faite à la culture ainu, à laquelle cette langue de terre doit le nom. Enfin, le 6 juin 2008, une résolution, approuvée par la Diète, invite le gouvernement à reconnaître le peuple ainu, comme indigènes du Japon et à hâter la fin des discriminations, la résolution reconnaît le peuple ainu comme un « peuple indigène, avec un langage, une religion et une culture différente et abroge la loi de 1899.

 

D’après des enquêtes menées par l’association de défense de la culture ainu (Tari), les Ainu seraient encore victimes de discriminations scolaires (présence moindre sur les bancs universitaires) ou sociales (mariage). Cependant les mentalités et le regard porté sur les Ainu continuent de changer, notamment par le truchement des découvertes archéologiques, qui mettent en avant les peuples de la période Jômon, replacés dans une perspective et un environnement asiatiques (voir notre article sur le sujet). Des expositions internationales, un projet de parc culturel et même des artistes d’origine ainu (l’acteur Ukaji Takashi, le musicien Kano Oki) défendent et cherchent à valoriser leur culture. Des citoyens, issus de la génération d’enfants nés de couples mixtes, essayent de découvrir (pour ceux qui le découvrent) leurs origines, occultées par les parents. Cependant,  le film d’animation Princesse Mononoké (1997), réalisé par Hayao Miyazaki, fait implicitement référence aux traditions ainu, mais sans les manifester ouvertement. Mais, depuis peu (30 octobre 2011), un mouvement de militants ainu se lance dans la vie politique institutionnelle avec à sa tête, Kayano Shiro, le fils de l’ancien responsable ainu, Kayano Shigeru, et pour objectif l’instauration d’une société multiculturelle et multi-ethnique au Japon.

 

Conclusions

 

L’idée japonaise d’une société ethniquement homogène est battue en brèche, parce que pure construction politique et idéologique. Avant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le rapport aux minorités reposait sur le rapport de force, la création d’un statut, l’assimilation et l’exploitation économique forcée. Hanté par la crainte de la dégénérescence raciale et aveuglé par le succès de l’expansion coloniale qu’ils attribuent à la supériorité de leur « race» en Asie, le Japon s’est enfermé dans une idéologie et une politique impérialiste, qui a conduit le pays à la défaite. Il est flagrant de relever qu’après un conflit multiséculaire contre les Emishi et les Ainu, c’est précisément au XIXe siècle – alors que le Japon s’ouvre aux technologies, aux économies et aux cultures de l’Occident – que ce pays en s’en appropriant certaines de ses valeurs, s’est donné les moyens d’une politique impériale à destination de l’Asie et des territoires proches revendiqués par lui (Hokkaidô, îles Ryukyu et péninsule coréenne).

 

L’objectif était ouvertement – pour les populations des îles périphériques – l’assimilation, car d’un point de vue juridique, le Japon ne reconnaissait, jusqu’à la résistance civique des Ainu, qu’une seule ethnie. Les difficultés rencontrées par les Nikkeijin dans leur intégration, a démontré que l’appartenance à un groupe sur le seul critère biologique (l’innée), est une interprétation erronée minimisant l’importance des facteurs culturels (l’acquis).

 

Même si à l’heure actuelle, les minorités ne sont toujours pas juridiquement considérées comme faisant partie intégrante de la société, car ne possédant pas les attributs de la japonité, la société japonaise change : les signes d’acceptation des minorités (officieuses et de la minorité officielle ainu) sont visibles dans les média et au quotidien. En outre, les conditions d’accès à la citoyenneté japonaise prennent les formes intelligentes, pragmatiques et prudentes d’une immigration choisie (comme remède au vieillissement programmé de la population). Enfin, émane du pays une image pacifiée et positive, que l’on retrouve dans les médias occidentaux et sur Internet (le « Cool Japan », politique internationale pacifique, etc.), qui font de ce pays, probablement un des seuls réellement démocratique en Asie, une terre d’accueil pour de nouveaux immigrants, à condition que ceux-ci fassent un effort réel d’intégration (ce qui est au demeurant la moindre des choses…).

 

Rémy Valat

 

Orientations bibliographiques :

 

• Batchelor John, Sympathetic Magic of the Ainu. The Native people of Japan, Folklore History Series, reprint 2010.

 

• Beillevaire Patrick, « Okinawa : disparition et renaissance d’un département », in Le Japon contemporain, Dir. Jean-Marie Bouissou, Fayard, C.E.R.I., 2007.

 

• Dallais Philippe, « Hokkaidô : le peuple Ainu, ou l’ambivalence de la diversité culturelle au Japon », in Le Japon contemporain, Dir. Jean-Marie Bouissou, Fayard, C.E.R.I., 2007.

 

Ethnic groups in Japan, including Ainu people, Ryukyuan people, Emishi, foreign-born Japanese, Dekasegi, Yamato people, Gaijin, Chinese people in Japan, Brazilians in Japan, Aterui, Indians in Japan, Peruvians in Japan, Burmese people in Japan, Hephaestus Books, 2011, (Une impression des sources Wikipédia disponibles sur le sujet).

 

• Kayano Shigeru, The Ainu. A story of Japan’s Original People, Tuttle Publishing, 1989.

 

• Pelletier Philippe, Atlas du Japon. Une société face à la post-modernité, Autrement, 2008.

 

• Poutignat Philippe et Streiff-Fenart Jocelyne, Théories de l’ethnicité, Presses universitaires de France, coll. « Quadrige », avril 2008.

 

• Reischauer Edwin O., Histoire du Japon et des Japonais. Des origines à 1945, Seuil, coll. « Points Histoire », 1988.

 

• Yamamoto Hadjime, Rapport japonais. Les minorités en droit public interne au Japon, en ligne à l’adresse suivante : www.bibliojuridica.org/libros/4/1725/45.pdf

 


 

Article printed from Europe Maxima: http://www.europemaxima.com

 

URL to article: http://www.europemaxima.com/?p=3482

jeudi, 23 janvier 2014

Muere el soldado japonés que siguió luchando 30 años después del fin de la II Guerra Mundial

Muere el soldado japonés que siguió luchando 30 años después del fin de la II Guerra Mundial

alt«Victoria o derrota, yo he hecho todo lo que he podido» respondió el subteniente japonés Hiroo Onoda en 1974 al enterarse de la derrota de Japón casi 30 años después de que hubiera finalizado la II Guerra Mundial. El soldado del Ejército Imperial nipón vivió durante tres décadas escondido en la selva de Filipinas convencido de que se seguía luchando.

Onoda solo entregó sus armas cuando su comandante le ordenó abandonar su escondite en una montaña de la isla de Lubang, a 112 kilómetros al sur de Manila. Cuando fue hallado en una montaña de la isla de Lubang, a 112 kilómetros al sur de Manila, el soldado japonés conservaba en su poder una copia de la orden dada en 1945 por el emperador Hirohito para que los soldados japoneses se entregasen a los aliados, pero él insistía: «Sólo me rendiré ante mi superior».

Onada había llegado a la isla de Lubang en 1944 a los 22 años con la misión de introducirse en las líneas enemigas, llevar a cabo operaciones de vigilancia y sobrevivir de manera independiente. Tenía una orden: no rendirse jamás y aguantar hasta la llegada de refuerzos. Con otros tres soldados obedeció estas instrucciones incluso después de la capitulación de Japón.

Vivió de plátanos, mangos y el ganado que mataba en la selva, escondiéndose de la Policía filipina y de las expediciones de japoneses que fueron en su busca desde que en 1950 se supo de su existencia por uno de los soldados que le acompañaban, que decidió abandonar la selva y volver a Japón. Onoda los confundía con espías enemigos.

Expediciones fallidas

Tokio y Manila intentaron contactar con los otros dos soldados japoneses durante años hasta que en 1959 finalizaron su búsqueda, convencidos de que habían muerto. En 1972, Onoda perdió a su último hombre al hacer frente a las tropas filipinas y Tokio decidió entonces enviar a miembros de su propia familia para intentar convencerle de que depusiera las armas. Todos los esfuerzos fueron en vano y su pista se perdió de nuevo hasta que fue avistado por el estudiante japonés Norio Suzuki en marzo de 1974 cuando hacía camping en la selva de Lubang.

Tuvo que desplazarse hasta la isla el entonces ya excomandante Yoshimi Taniguchi para entregarle las instrucciones de que quedaba liberado de todas sus responsabilidades. Solo así, Onada se rindió. Su madre, Tame Onoda, lloró de alegría.Los japoneses recibieron a Onada como a un héroe nacional a su regreso a Tokio por la abnegación con la que había servido al emperador. Tenía entonces 52 años. El exteniente contaría entonces que durante sus treinta años en la jungla filipina solo tuvo una cosa en la cabeza: «ejecutar las órdenes».

Un año después se mudó a Brasil, donde se casó con Machle Onuki y gestionó con éxito una finca agrícola en Sao Paulo. En 1989 volvió a Japón y puso en marcha un campamento itinerante para jóvenes en el que impartía cursos de supervivencia en la naturaleza y escribió su increíble aventura en el libro «No rendición: mi guerra de 30 años».

Onoda, el último de las decenas de soldados japoneses que continuaron su lucha sin creer en la derrota nipona, falleció este jueves en un hospital de Tokio a los 91 años por un problema de corazón, tras llevar enfermo desde finales del año pasado.

Fuente: ABC

In morte di Hiroo Onoda: apologia dell'eroismo

In morte di Hiroo Onoda: apologia dell'eroismo

di Daniele Scalea

Fonte: huffingtonpost

Si è spento mercoledì scorso Hiroo Onoda, il militare giapponese disperso nelle Filippine che, ignorando l'esito della Seconda Guerra Mondiale, continuò a combattere nella giungla, prima con tre commilitoni e - dopo la loro resa o morte - da solo, fino al 1974. Inizialmente rifiutò d'arrendersi pure di fronte ai messaggi con cui lo si informava della fine del conflitto, ritenendoli una trappola. Depose le armi solo quando il suo diretto superiore di trent'anni prima si recò da lui per ordinarglielo, dispensandolo dal giuramento di combattere fino alla morte. Raccontò la sua storia in un libro, pubblicato nel 1975 da Mondadori col titolo Non mi arrendo.

La storia di Onoda apparirà senz'altro "esotica" (roba da giapponesi!) e "arcaica" (ormai le guerre non ci sono più! In Europa Occidentale, s'intende, perché nel resto del mondo ci sono eccome) a gran parte dei lettori italiani del XXI secolo. Chi di noi riesce a immaginarsi, poco più di ventenne nella giungla, restarci trent'anni solo per onorare un giuramento e battersi per la causa che si ritiene giusta? Eppure la storia di Hiroo Onoda qualcosa da insegnarci ce l'ha; e proprio perché la sentiamo così lontana, temporalmente e culturalmente, da noi.

In quest'epoca così moderna e avanzata, il lettore al passo coi tempi potrà ben pensare che, in fondo, Onoda era solo un "fanatico", un "folle", un "indottrinato". Nei tempi bui che furono, il senso comune l'avrebbe definito un "eroe". Questa figura dell'Eroe, così pomposamente celebrata nei millenni passati, ha perso oggi tanto del suo smalto - presso la civiltà occidentale, e in particolare europea. Bertolt Brecht sancì che è sventurata quella terra che necessiti di eroi. Il nostro Umberto Eco ha deciso che l'eroe vero è quello che lo diventa per sbaglio, desiderando solo essere un "onesto vigliacco" come tutti noi altri. Salendo più su troviamo il nuovo vate d'Italia: Fabio Volo ha scritto che non è eroe chi lotta per la gloria, ma l'uomo comune che lotta per la sopravvivenza.

Prima di discutere queste tre idee, precisiamo che l'Eroe si definisce (o almeno così fa la Treccani) come colui che si eleva al di sopra degli altri: in origine più per la nobilità di stirpe, in seguito per la nobiltà nell'agire. L'Eroe non è necessariamente un guerriero: semplicemente la guerra, mettendo chi le combatte di fronte a situazioni e rischi assenti nella vita comune, facilita il manifestarsi dell'eroismo. Ma non è banalizzazione dire che l'Eroe può esserlo nel lavoro, nella scienza, nella politica, nell'arte e così via. È invece banalizzazione individuare l'eroismo nel fare ciò che tutti fanno, perché viene meno il senso stesso del termine: l'elevarsi, il fare più del normale, il più del dovuto. Dove tutti sono eroi, nessuno è eroe.

Alla luce di quanto appena detto, si coglierà l'illogicità della formulazione di Volo (per la cronaca: tratta da Esco a fare due passi), pure se inserita nel suo epos dei broccoletti (in sintesi elogio di mediocrità e de-gerarchizzazione di valore; ma se proponi un modello anti-eroico, allora parla di anti-eroi e non di eroi). Tutti sopravvivono, indotti in ciò dall'istinto di autoconservazione, e non vi è nulla di particolarmente commendevole nel far ciò che si è costretti a fare. Al contrario, l'Eroe per distinguersi dalla massa può andare contro l'istinto di autoconservazione (sacrificare, o porre a rischio, la propria vita per conseguire un obiettivo o per salvare altre vite), o fare più di ciò che è da parte sua dovuto. Non potremmo definire un eroe, ad esempio, un Giacomo Leopardi che sacrifica la sua salute e la sua felicità per diventare un sommo poeta, e così deliziare contemporanei e posteri?

L'idea della scelta libera e volontaria pare elemento costitutivo dell'eroismo, e ciò richiama in causa anche Eco. È in fondo diventato un cliché anche hollywoodiano, quello per cui l'eroe protagonista del film non diviene tale perché convinto della causa per cui battersi, ma solo perché travolto dagli eventi. L'escamotage classico vuole che i "cattivi" massacrino la sua famiglia, inducendolo per vendetta a combatterli. Questo leit motiv lo ritroviamo in tanti film di successo: pensiamo a Braveheart, The Patriot, o Giovanna D'Arco di Luc Besson, dove tra l'altro il primo e l'ultimo cambiano la vera storia pur d'inserirvi il tema suddetto. Gli appassionati di cinema potranno trovare molti più esempi, anche in generi diversi dall'epico e dallo storico. A quanto pare, l'individuo occidentale medio riesce ad accettare molto più la vendetta personale che lo schierarsi coscientemente per una causa collettiva che si ritiene giusta.

Eppure, lo ribadiamo, è la libera scelta a dare davvero valore all'atto eroico. Sembrano in ciò molto più savi dei nostri maître à penser odierni i teologi riformatori del Cinquecento quando, con logica rigorosa, notavano che non vi può essere merito individuale senza libero arbitrio. Così come una salvezza decisa da Dio è merito esclusivamente di Dio, un atto eroico costretto (non semplicemente indotto: costretto) dalle circostanze è "merito" delle circostanze stesse.

Rimane in ballo la questione se sia davvero una sventura aver bisogno di eroi. Tanti pensatori hanno più o meno esplicitamente ricondotto il progresso a un meccanismo di sfida-risposta, in cui spesso giocano un ruolo essenziale individui straordinari per la loro capacità creativa. Tra i più espliciti assertori di tali tesi nel secolo scorso, citiamo alla rinfusaA.J. Toynbee, H.J. Mackinder, Carlo Cipolla, Lev Gumilëv. Sono le persone straordinarie (nel senso letterale di fuori dall'ordinario, e dunque non comuni) che, con i loro atti creativi (in cui spesso la creazione maggiore è l'atto in sé come esempio ispiratore per gli altri), rinnovano costantemente la vitalità di un popolo. Rovesciando l'aforisma di Brecht:sventurata quella nazione che non ha bisogno di eroi, perché significa che ha scelto coscientemente d'avviarsi sulla strada della decadenza.

Restiamo sull'eroismo, torniamo a Hiroo Onoda. C'è una lezione che potremmo apprendere dall'eroica follia di questo giapponese che per trent'anni continua da solo una guerra già conclusa, o dai mille altri eroi - di guerra e pace, armati di spada, penna o lingua che fossero? Io credo di sì.

Potremmo imparare da loro lo spirito di sacrificio e l'indomita fede di chi crede in ciò per cui lotta - sia essa una patria o un'idea, un partito o una persona, una guerra o una pace.

Dovremmo imparare da loro che eroismo non è sopportare supinamente, tutt'al più inveendo (ma su Facebook o Twitter, che la poltrona è più comoda della piazza) contro le storture del mondo; ma eroismo è insorgere, levarsi contro l'ingiustizia. Se il mondo è storto non è eroico guardarlo cadere, ma cercare di raddrizzarlo.

Dovremmo riflettere che se oggi le cose vanno male, mancano i diritti e abbondano le ingiustizie, la morale è corrotta, l'ingiusto trionfa e il giusto patisce; se l'oggi insomma ci pare sbagliato, dovremmo impegnarci a correggerlo.

Perché i diritti non li regala nessuno, la giustizia non si difende da sola, il progresso non viene da sé. Servono i creativi, servono gli eroi.

Con buona pace dei Brecht, degli Eco e dei Volo.


Tante altre notizie su www.ariannaeditrice.it

vendredi, 17 janvier 2014

Hiroo Onoda: RIP

jeudi, 19 décembre 2013

Les Japonais et la Guerre de l'Asie-Pacifique

Les Japonais et la Guerre de l'Asie-Pacifique
 
De la tragédie au mythe

Rémy Valat
Ex: http://metamag.fr

Le livre de Michael Lucken, Les Japonais et la guerre (1937-1952), est un ouvrage qui fera date dans l'historiographie du Japon contemporain autant par l'originalité et la pertinence de l'approche méthodologique que par l'acuité des idées exprimées par son auteur. 


9782213661414-G.jpgMichael Lucken est professeur des université près l'Institut des langues et des civilisations orientales, spécialiste de l'art japonais, spécialité qui est une des pièces maîtresse du dispositif analytique et des sources exploitées par l’auteur pour saisir notamment les mécanismes psychologiques ayant animé les Japonais pendant la guerre de l'Asie-pacifique et l'immédiat après-guerre (fin de l'occupation américaine). Rien de plus précieux en effet, en une période où la parole publique n'est pas nécessairement libre, que de recourir aux sources littéraires, graphiques et visuelles pour saisir l'ampleur affective du drame, son appropriation par les Japonais et son instrumentalisation par les pouvoirs politiques nippons et américains. 

Il suffit de garder en mémoire les passages poignants de Shûsako Endô, notamment dans son roman Le fleuve sacré, pour apprécier l'impact sur cet auteur lorsqu'il fût informé a posteriori des actes de cannibalisme commis par des soldats affamés, harcelés et en déroute en pleine jungle de Birmanie. L'ombre de la guerre se pose aussi implicitement ou explicitement dans les réalisations cinématographiques et la bande dessinée contemporaines (films, anime, manga). Surtout, Michael Lucken, qui a exploité une importante quantité de sources japonaises, nous démontre comment la Seconde Guerre mondiale est devenue « une figure mythique » au Japon. Il nous explique comment la fin du conflit, et en particulier le drame des bombes atomiques, a été exploitée par l'empereur et sa chancellerie pour assurer, avec le consentement des autorités américaines d'occupation (SCAP), la survie et la permanence de l'institution impériale au prix du sacrifices de nombreuses vies humaines, d'une interprétation et d'une manipulation de la réalité historique. Ce thème est abordé dans la seconde partie de l’ouvrage et apporte un éclairage sur les enjeux mémoriels et politiques actuellement en jeu en Asie.

L’auteur relate peu les crimes commis par l'armée japonaise en guerre. Cela a déjà été traité par Jean-Louis Margolin (Violences et crimes du Japon en guerre, 1937-1945, Grand Pluriel, 2009) et les campagnes militaires, ce n'est pas l'objet principal de son livre. Il a surtout étudié le vécu de l'arrière, l'impact de la guerre sur le quotidien : une guerre d'abord coloniale et lointaine, et qui devient de plus en plus présente en raison d'un plus grand embrigadement du corps social, de l'accroissement du nombre des tués et des bombardements alliés. Le lecteur pourra être choqué par le mépris des autorités pour leurs soldats, et en particulier du problème du rapatriement des ossements des morts au combat : pour les Japonais, le respect aux défunts et le deuil des familles est conditionné par le retour des cendres, de restes ou d'effets personnels du défunt ; or, la réalité des engagements armés ne le permettant pas toujours, les autorités militaires japonaises ont multipliés les expédients, et même préconisé le prélèvement in vivo et anticipé de reliques, principalement les phanères (à l'instar des pilotes de kamikaze qui avaient la tête rasée, à l'exception d'une mèche de cheveux destinée à être envoyée aux proches du héros). Ce mépris a ouvert très tôt les portes à toutes les sollicitations au sacrifice : si la valorisation et la pratique d’offrir héroïquement sa vie au combat est ancienne au Japon (et pas uniquement japonaise, l'auteur explique brillamment l'influence de la pensée occidentale au Japon, et en particulier Romain Rolland), c’est surtout l’exemple des trois soldats qui se seraient délibérément sacrifiés à Shangai le 22 février 1932 en transportant un tube de Bangalore (explosif servant à faire des brèches dans les fortifications ou lignes de barbelées adverses) que les contemporains de la guerre ont en mémoire : ces « trois bombes humaines » ou « projectiles de chair » sont à l’origine du terme « nikudan », largement employé dans la presse pour désigner les soldats prêts à mourir dans une mission sans retour. L'épisode des kamikaze se situe dans cette continuité, mais avec une intensité supérieure, car le Japon se trouve devant le gouffre de la défaite...


Enfin, Michael Lucken nous éclaire sur la dimension romantique de l'engagement patriotique de la population japonaise qui pensait sincèrement que l'occupation nippone en Asie serait temporaire, le temps nécessaire d' « éclairer spirituellement » les populations des pays conquis... Malgré la brièveté de la présence des armées impériales, le message d'émancipation véhiculé à l'époque a porté ses fruits, comme en témoigne la vague de décolonisation asiatique. Nous est révélée l'irrationalité et le romantisme du peuple et des élites nippons dans le déclenchement et la poursuite d'une guerre avec de faibles, voire aucune, perspectives de victoire. « Le Japon enfermé dans la modernité occidentale (…) n'avait d'autres solutions (…) que de se lancer dans la guerre, pour que les individus puissent ainsi une dernière fois sentir et prolonger la pureté du souffle national. Il n'y avait à l'horizon ni paix ni après-guerre, seul importait un engagement immédiat, complet et sans retour. La lumière se trouverait dans la ruine. » 


Michael Lucken, Les Japonais et la guerre (1937-1952), Fayard, 2013, 399 p.

lundi, 02 décembre 2013

L’Océan Pacifique est-il devenu radioactif ?

contamination fukushima pacifique monde.jpg

APRES FUKUSHIMA…

L’Océan Pacifique est-il devenu radioactif ?

Michel Lhomme
Ex: http://metamag.fr
Il faut de l’abnégation et chercher l’information pour entendre parler de Fukushima. Or on apprend assez vite que de l’eau hautement radioactive en provenance des ruines de la centrale de Fukushima se déverserait toujours dans l’océan Pacifique, créant un état d’urgence sanitaire difficilement maîtrisable selon les propres dires d’un responsable de l’agence industrielle Tepco, en charge de la gestion des équipements nucléaires japonais. 

Le problème aurait deux sources : l’eau souterraine contaminée et l’eau stockée dans des réservoirs dont une partie s’écoulerait, suite à des fuites. 300 tonnes d’eau contaminée aurait ainsi déjà atteint la mer, a reconnu Tepco au mois d’Août dernier. Mais les autorités japonaises continuent de nier et affirment que l’Océan Pacifique n’a jamais été atteint ou que le total cumulé d’éléments radioactifs s’écoulant en mer s’inscrirait dans des limites légales et autorisées pour la santé. Qui croire ? Les déclarations ou les cartes de radioactivité des chercheurs indépendants ?
 
Des mesures de contention ont été prises, tel qu’un système de décontamination prévu pour traiter 500 tonnes d’eau par jour ou encore le pompage de l’eau avant qu’elle n’atteigne la mer et enfin, la construction d’une barrière sous-marine qui a débutée en mai 2012 et qui sera achevée en septembre 2014. 

Toutes ces mesures reconnaissent donc bien que le système de décontamination existant n’est pas complètement opérationnel et qu’en tout cas, il est nécessaire. En outre, le chef de l’Autorité de sûreté nucléaire japonaise a déclaré en octobre qu’une brèche avait été détectée dans une barrière souterraine laissant émerger de l’eau contaminée dans des quantités supérieures à la radioactivité légalement admise. 

300-tons-radioactive-water-japan1.jpg

 
Tepco a répliqué aussitôt en indiquant : “Nous ne savons toujours pas pourquoi le niveau de radiation a bondi, mais nous poursuivons les efforts pour éviter une nouvelle expansion de la contamination”. S’il a souvent été reproché aux autorités japonaises une certaine opacité sur la question, des chercheurs indépendants souvent américains ou canadiens se penchent régulièrement sur le sujet et leurs estimations sont alarmantes. Ce seraient des quantités extrêmement dangereuses de strontium, tritium et césium qui se seraient échappés de Fukushima pour se déverser dans tout l’Hémisphère Nord portés par les courants, la pluie et le vent. 

Face aux derniers aveux de Tepco, les risques semblent bien tangibles et s’étendraient, selon les spécialistes, sur toute la côte ouest des Etats-Unis et cette pollution radioactive pourrait potentiellement affecter la vie marine et la santé de millions de personnes vivant dans l’hémisphère nord au bord des côtes du Pacifique. 

Ce que craignent surtout les spécialistes, c’est un nouveau séisme, un de ces tremblements de terre dévastateurs dont le Japon est coutumier. La revue “The New Scientist” a tenu à préciser que la centrale nucléaire de Fukushima contenait à l’origine 1760 tonnes de matières nucléaires alors que Tchernobyl en contenait 180. Mais vous l’aurez noté, on parle beaucoup moins de Fukushima en France malgré la Polynésie française toute proche. 

dimanche, 01 décembre 2013

B52 EN ASIE : UNE PENTE DANGEREUSE

 

lee_photo_A2.jpg

B52 EN ASIE : UNE PENTE DANGEREUSE

Les stratèges américains en plein chambardement

Michel Lhomme
Ex: http://metamag.fr

Nous l’avions écrit: le prochain théâtre de guerre sera asiatique et en partie maritime (l’Océan Pacifique). Deux bombardiers américains B-52 ont pénétré dans la très controversée « zone aérienne d'identification » (ZAI) mise en place par la Chine.  Cette zone est récente et même très récente puisque elle date tout simplement de samedi dernier ! On nous dit que les Etats-Unis n’en auraient pas référé à Pékin mais heureusement puisque cette ZAI n’existe pas dans les textes ! Les avions US, qui n'embarquaient aucune arme mais sans doute de bons outils de renseignements, ont décollé de l'île de Guam dans le Pacifique lundi soit à peine deux jours après l’annonce unilatérale chinoise. Le soutien des Américains à leur allié japonais est donc total.

Aucun plan de vol n'avait été déposé au préalable auprès de la Chine et la mission s'est déroulée "sans incident". Les deux avions sont restés "moins d'une heure", - ce qui est assez long - dans la dite "zone aérienne d'identification". Ils attendaient sans doute les avions de chasse chinois que Pékin s’est bien gardé d’envoyer. Cette "zone aérienne d'identification" a suscité l'opposition ferme et justifiée du gouvernement japonais car elle englobe les îles Senkaku, îles fermement revendiquées par Pékin sous le nom de Diaoyu. Mais la ZAI chinoise de samedi va aussi plus loin : elle englobe des eaux revendiquées par Taïwan et la Corée du Sud, ces derniers ayant également manifesté leur mécontentement après la décision de Pékin.

CHINA_-_JAPAN_-_Diaoyu-Senkaku.jpgDans sa déclaration de samedi, la Chine exigeait que tout appareil s'aventurant dans cette ZAI fournisse désormais au préalable son plan de vol précis, affiche sa nationalité et maintienne des communications radio permettant de "répondre de façon rapide et appropriée aux requêtes d'identification" des autorités chinoises, sous peine d'intervention des forces armées. Le ton est monté lundi entre Tokyo et Pékin à la suite de la décision chinoise d'imposer cette zone de contrôle aérien. Le même jour et en solidarité avec son allié japonais, le colonel Warren, porte-parole de la Défense américaine a qualifié la mesure chinoise d'"incendiaire". Des responsables du Pentagone ont alors précisé que les avions de l'armée américaine continueraient de voler dans cette région comme avant, sans soumettre de plans de vol à Pékin au préalable.

Le différend territorial entre les deux puissances asiatiques s'est aggravé depuis septembre 2012, lorsque le Japon a nationalisé trois des cinq îles qui appartenaient à un propriétaire privé nippon. Cette décision avait entraîné une semaine de manifestations anti-japonaises violentes en Chine, et une forte contestation de Pékin. Le Japon fit de son côté patrouiller ses garde-côtes dans les mêmes eaux et ce chassé-croisé avait suscité les craintes d'un éventuel incident armé entre les deux puissances.

B52 dans le Pacifique mais lâchage en Afghanistan

Par ailleurs, poursuivant leur politique de « changement de pivot stratégique », la conseillère de sécurité nationale américaine Susan Rice en visite à Kaboul a prévenu le président afghan Hamid Karzaï qu’il ne serait « pas viable » de retarder la signature de l’accord de sécurité entre leurs deux pays. Elle a haussé le ton en affirmant que sans signature rapide d’un accord réciproque, les Etats-Unis n’auraient d’autre choix que de prévoir un après-2014 où les troupes américaines et de l’Otan ne seraient plus présentes .Le gouvernement de Karzaï se retrouverait seul et sans appui financier. Sans le dire ouvertement, les USA affirment qu’ils sont prêts à lâcher l’Afghanistan, quitte à  entériner un retour taliban dans le secteur. Un peu déroutant tout de même pour nos défunts soldats : pour qui, pourquoi sont-ils morts finalement ?

La relation entre les Etats-Unis et l’Afghanistan est extrêmement tendue. L’enjeu est la signature du traité bilatéral de sécurité (BSA) que Washington et Kaboul négocient actuellement depuis plusieurs mois. Kharzaï ne cesse de faire monter les enchères. La Loya Jirga, grande assemblée traditionnelle afghane, a pourtant approuvé dimanche le Traité, qui doit définir les modalités d’une présence militaire américaine en Afghanistan après le départ des 75 000 soldats de l’Otan. En fait, d’ores et déjà, ce retrait fait craindre une recrudescence des violences dans le pays et même une offensive taliban au printemps prochain entraînant une déstabilisation de la partie indienne ou pakistanaise.

Pour précipiter cette signature, la Maison Blanche tente de jouer des divisions locales et s’est donc vivement félicitée de l’approbation du Traité bilatéral de Sécurité par la Loya Jirga pachtoune. Elle demande des comptes à Kharzaï ! Or, ce dernier aurait énoncé de nouvelles conditions pour signer l’accord et aurait même indiqué qu’il n’était pas prêt à signer rapidement.

Hamid Karzaï est aux abois 

Il souhaite que la promulgation de l’accord ait lieu après l’élection présidentielle d’avril 2014, à laquelle cependant la Constitution lui interdit de se présenter. Les Etats-Unis ont refusé catégoriquement les nouvelles exigences de Karzaï et répondu que « retarder la signature jusqu’aux élections de l’année prochaine n’était pas viable, car cela ne donnerait pas la clarté nécessaire aux Etats-Unis et à l’Otan pour planifier leur présence après 2014. L'absence d’un BSA signé mettrait en danger les promesses d’aides faites par l’Otan et d’autres pays aux conférences de Chicago et Tokyo en 2012 ».

La diplomatie a aussi des perspectives économiques. En Iran, les entreprises automobiles américaines s’apprêtent à revenir dans le pays, satisfaites au passage d’avoir pu, avec l’aval du blocus occidental, éliminé les compagnies françaises concurrentes, Renault et Peugeot ! En fait, on n’est pas vraiment sûr que la diplomatie française ait compris les changements d’alliances en cours, qu’elle ait réellement pris la mesure de la rapidité avec lequel les Etats-Unis, très bien informés sur l’état réel de la défense chinoise sont aujourd’hui déterminés à pivoter à cent quatre vingt degrés. Ils ont accéléré l’accord sur le Sahara occidental et renforcé l’alliance militaire avec le Maroc. Ils sont en train  d’éclaircir leurs positions en Amérique latine tout cela pour se concentrer ensuite sur le Pacifique et l’endiguement de la Chine. Il serait peut-être temps que le Quai d’Orsay se réveille. Mais après tant de décisions irrationnelles, le peut-il encore vraiment sans se désavouer totalement ?