Johann Gottfried Herder
Song Loves the Masses: Herder on Music and Nationalism [2]
Translated and edited by Philip V. Bohlman
Oakland: University of California Press, 2017
Johann Gottfried Herder was an 18th-century German philosopher, theologian, translator, and critic. He wrote on many subjects: political philosophy, philosophy of mind, philosophy of history, metaphysics, linguistics, philology, art, religion, mythology, and music. He influenced several philosophers and his ideas form the basis of the modern disciplines of linguistics and cultural anthropology.
Herder was born in 1744 to humble origins in East Prussia. He studied for two years at the University of Königsberg, where he met Johann Georg Hamann and became a favored pupil of Immanuel Kant. He then became a clergyman and teacher. A few years later he embarked on a journey throughout Europe (see Journal meiner Reise im Jahre 1769). While in Strasbourg in 1770 he met Goethe, whom his works strongly influenced. Herder became a leading figure in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. In 1776 he was made general superintendent of the clergy in Weimar and lived there for the remainder of his life.
It is only within the past two decades that much of Herder’s work has been translated into English. The texts in this book have not appeared before in English translation. This collection is also the first to compile Herder’s writings on music into one volume. It contains nine essays, each prefaced with a brief introduction by the translator. The book also contains an appendix with translations of the lyrics of 24 folk songs included in Herder’s anthology of folk music.
The first section of the book contains Herder’s essays on folk songs. Herder believed that folk music embodied a nation’s Volksgeist, or the innate character of a people as expressed through culture and civilization. In his magnum opus, Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind, he articulates the idea that each people possesses a distinct Volksgeist (he used the phrase “Geist des Volkes”) and national character. He is considered the originator of this concept.
Thus Herder conceived of the nation first and foremost as an organic community bound together by a common culture and heritage. During his lifetime, Germany was divided into hundreds of independently governed territories whose governing elites imitated the customs of the French nobility and frequently feuded, and a century earlier the nation had been ravaged by the Thirty Years War and other religious conflicts. Herder’s notion of the Volksgeist laid the foundations of German nationalism and contributed to the growth of German national consciousness during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Although Herder was influenced by Enlightenment thinking, he rejected the Enlightenment notion that every individual is fundamentally alike and that all people share certain moral values and psychological characteristics by default. He believed that human beings vary greatly depending upon their respective cultural contexts and that furthermore one’s cultural background (language, heritage, customs, physical environment, etc.) indelibly shapes one’s character; this occurs on the level of both the individual and the group. (The implicitly ethnic nature of his idea of the Volksgeist, despite his lack of overt racialism in a biological sense, is evinced particularly by his mention of how climate affects how groups evolve physically and mentally over time.)
This led him both to reject the homogenizing form of cosmopolitanism embraced by many Enlightenment thinkers and to advocate cultural pluralism and oppose imperialism and chauvinism (see This Too a Philosophy of History for the Formation of Humanity). For this reason he is sometimes portrayed as a forerunner of modern multiculturalist progressivism. But Herder’s concept of pluralist nationalism runs counter to the modern promotion of open borders and globalization, which pose a threat to the existence of distinct national cultures and the homogeneity of individual groups. Others have pointed out that the cosmopolitanism espoused by modern Western liberals is ironically a form of “white supremacy” as it assumes that all peoples of the world, from African tribesmen to Mongolian goat-herders, uphold Western values and aspire toward Western civilizational standards.
Herder’s belief that the Volksgeist of a nation was expressed in its ancient poetry and folk music led him to take an interest in reviving ancient folk songs. In the first essay, he argues that folk songs must be collected and anthologized in order to “catch a spark from the spirit of the German fatherland, albeit buried in ash and rubble” and preserve folk songs before they were lost to history. He compiled folk songs into two anthologies: Volkslieder in 1774 and Alte Volkslieder in 1778 and 1779, first published serially as four volumes and later as two larger volumes (a second edition was published posthumously in 1807, titled Stimmen der Völker in ihren Liedern). The anthology contained 194 folk songs from a variety of European countries and was an influential text throughout the nineteenth century. Herder’s translation of the text of the Scottish folk song “Edward, Edward” inspired Brahms’s Ballade, op. 10, no. 1 and Schubert’s “Eine Altschottische Ballade.”
Herder’s conception of folk music encompassed ancient epic poetry as well as traditional folk songs. The epilogue contains a brief excerpt from his Treatise on the Origin of Language, in which he concludes at one point that human language evolved from the primitive capacity for song (a theory that a number of modern studies corroborate). Epic poems were of course originally meant to be sung. Herder writes of Homer: “The greatest singer of the Greeks, Homer, is at the same time the greatest folk poet.” He most admired the Homeric epics, the Norse Edda, the Nibelungenlied, The Poems of Ossian, and the Old Testament.
Therefore this book also includes essays by Herder on epic poems. Most notable of these is one containing fragments from his Briefwechsel über Ossian und die Lieder alter Völker (Correspondence about Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples), published in 1773 in the manifesto Von deutscher Art und Kunst (which also contained his essay on Shakespeare and essays by Goethe and Justus Möser). The manifesto outlines a path toward creating German art, literature, and music reflecting Germany’s national past.
The Poems of Ossian are a cycle of epic poems purportedly collected and translated (from Gaelic to English) by the Scottish poet James Macpherson. The character of Ossian was based on legends surrounding Oisín, a warrior-poet in Irish mythology. While the authenticity of the poems was disputed, the work was lauded by many as a successor to the Homeric epics.
To Herder, the question of whether the poems were authentic was secondary. He was more concerned with the issue of translation and how translating the original Gaelic into English and then into German would refract the original through a different lens. He criticized Michael Denis’s German translation of the poems on the charge that his scholarly imitation of Greek hexameter formalized the verse and tamed its “wild” character, saying that his translation lacked “feeling for sound or singing, no real sense of fresh air from the hills of Caledonia” and did not reflect the spirit of the poems’ source material, which consisted of folk songs sung by the common people.
Herder believed that “wild” peoples produced literature that was more lively, lyrical, and free. The ancients were constantly forced to confront nature, which imbued their art and poetry with a vitality that modern men lack. He mentions in the essay that he read Ossian while standing on a ship’s deck during a rough storm and writes that “in the midst of such experiences the Old Norse singers and the bards emerge from your reading entirely unlike anything you might experience in a professor’s classroom.” The direct contact with the elements at sea and the imminent possibility of danger and death approximated the circumstances that originally gave rise to epic poetry.
Herder revered the ancients and did not adhere to the idea that history consists of a never-ending upward march of progress with each civilization merely serving as a stepping-stone to a higher one. Nonetheless he was not a primitivist. He believed that humans were distinguished from animals by their potential to cultivate “humanity,” or civilization, and welcomed progress in the arts and sciences. However he saw the idea of universal progress as a falsehood and held that different civilizations evolve at different rates. Thus in order for human perfectability to be achieved, each nation (and each individual within a nation) must fulfill its own destiny and evolve according to its own internal logic, which entails affirming the separateness of different nations.
The Ossian poems inspired Herder to embark on his first collection of folk songs. It was in his essay on Ossian that Herder coined the term Volkslied. He believed that German art should emulate Macpherson’s method of gathering material from folk tradition and using this as a foundation upon which to create something new. He criticized German poets and writers of his day for aping foreign literary conventions rather than drawing from ancient native traditions.
It is perhaps worth noting that Herder’s edition of the Ossian poems contained extensive annotations written by Melchiorre Cesarotti, who had translated the work into Italian. Cesarotti’s notes bore the influence of Giambattista Vico, which in turn may have indirectly influenced Herder. This is notable given that Vico’s work was virtually unknown at the time.
There are certain parallels as well as points of divergence between the two. Both were philosophers of the Enlightenment who were critical of Enlightenment thinking.[1] Both prefigured nineteenth-century historicism: in the words of Robert T. Clark, “it was Vico’s conviction that by examining the available documents on the subject of primitive culture he could discover a ‘metaphysics of history’ which would sweep the ground from under the Cartesian-Protestant position. . . . Vico and Herder did not evaluate the culture of a given age on the basis of their own–the error of the Cartesians–but instead sought for an adequate statement of its essential characteristics as revealed in a careful study of available information.”[2] (Vico reconciled this particularist view with the universality of his cyclical philosophy history by distinguishing between convention and human nature.) Like Herder, Vico believed that myth was central to civilization and saw works of literature and art as artefacts that shed light on the entire cultural organism from which they arose. He associated each age of history (the age of gods, the age of heroes, and the age of man) with different patterns of language: hieroglyphs, signs, and symbols; simile and metaphor; and irony respectively.
Some of the similarities between Vico and Herder are coincidental (e.g., their similar ideas on the origin of language) but it is possible that Herder’s theories of interpretation were indirectly influenced by Vico to some extent.
Herder’s interest in ancient epic poetry also led him to translate The Poem of the Cid (El Cantar del Mio Cid) into German. Excerpts from his translation are included in the book. The original poem is thought to have been written in the twelfth century. The eponymous hero of El Cid was a Castilian nobleman and military leader during the Reconquista. He was known for his skill as a military commander in expanding the territory of Castile and became a Castilian national hero. The poem chronicles the time roughly beginning with his exile from Castile in 1081 and ending shortly before his death in 1099.
Herder sought to create a bridge between past and present by evoking the heroism and nationalism of the original verse in German amid the atmosphere of modern Europe. Bohlman claims that “when nineteenth- and twentieth-century European linguists and historians set out in search of national epics, Herder’s Cid was their inspiration and their model.”
Music remains in the background in Herder’s Der Cid, both in terms of his attention to the sound of the poem (cadence, rhyme, assonance, etc.) and the invocation of music itself throughout, as in this stanza:
Priests and soldiers alike, in full voice,
Sang mass for the Cid,
And trumpets loudly heralded
The holy secret;
Cymbals rang, kettle drums roared,
So that the holy archways
Shook; a renewed courage of heroes
Filled the hearts of all the soldiers,
The three hundred so intrepid,
To enter into struggle against the Moors,
The Moors in Valencia.
This follows a dramatic scene in which El Cid forces King Alfonso VI to take an oath swearing that he was not the one who murdered his brother, the former king. Alfonso was offended by the public challenge to his honor and exiled El Cid from Castile, stripping him of his land and possessions. The “three hundred” refer to the men who remained loyal to him. El Cid and his 300 men went on a number of military campaigns and eventually conquered Valencia.
Herder also translated Handel’s Messiah, which he called “truly a Christian epic in music.” As a theologian and clergyman, Herder saw religion and music as being closely intertwined. Martin Luther (whom Herder strongly admired, though he lamented that Luther did not found a German national church) likewise held that music was “next to theology” and was divine in origin. Two of the essays here discuss sacred music. Herder’s criticism of the Pietists (a contemporary Lutheran movement) gives an idea of his views on sacred music in general: “Pietism has reduced sacred song to chamber song with sweet, feminine melodies, filled with tender sensitivity and rubbish, thus stripping it of all the majesty that commands the heart, and making it a weakling at play.”
The final essay in this book consists of the chapter on music from Herder’s last major work, Kalligone, in which he outlines his philosophy of aesthetics. The chapter is essentially a defence of music as an art form. Here he objects to Kant’s claim in The Critique of Judgment that music ranks below the visual and literary arts on account of the fleeting duration of sounds and the inherently passive nature of aural perception compared to visual perception and argues that these factors in fact render music more capable of creating an individual impression upon the listener from within. He sees music as an art of movement (“arrival and departure, becoming and being“) whose temporality enables it to best capture the fluctuations of human emotion and realize the sublime. On a broader level he argues that Kant’s a priori principles regarding aesthetic judgment led him to erect false barriers between cognition and sensation, between types of consciousness, experience, etc.
Herder repeatedly states that music, art, and poetry all reflect the character of their creators and the nations to which they belong but also remarks that the reverse is true in equal measure. He writes of poets: “A poet is the creator of the people in whose midst he writes: he gives them a world to see and has their souls in his hand in order to guide them into that world” [italics Herder’s]. Thus nations are built by artists and poets, whose works serve as national founding documents.
Notes
1. See Isaiah Berlin’s Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, and Herder.
2. Robert T. Clark, Jr., “Herder, Cesarotti and Vico,” Studies in Philology, vol. 44, no. 4 (October 1947): 647–48.
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Dans son texte, « Le retour de la vraie Droite », l’auteur revient en premier lieu sur l’ascension culturelle de la Gauche et conqtate que « les idéaux de l’Occident ont subi une inversion totale, et des idées qui se situaient initialement à la périphérie de l’extrême gauche ont été élevées au rang de normes sociales qui prévalent aujourd’hui dans l’éducation, les médias, les institutions gouvernementales et les ONG privées (p. 2) ». Un tel résultat, nous explique l’auteur, n’aurait pas pu être possible sans « les sociologues et philosophes marxistes de l’Institut für Sozialforschung de Francfort [qui], au début du XXe siècle, visaient, au travers de la conception de la philosophie et leur analyse sociale sélective, à saper la confiance dans les valeurs et hiérarchies traditionnelles (p. 2) ». Sans doute que d’autres facteurs sont rentrés en ligne de compte concernant l’involution de l’Occident, et non pas uniquement des facteurs politiques, mais cela ne rentre peut-être pas dans la grille de lecture de l’auteur – ce qui n’enlève rien, par ailleurs, à la justesse de ses propos.
Publié à l’origine en hongrois fin 2012 en tant qu’anthologie des articles d’Evola sur la jeunesse et la Droite, A Handbook For Right-Wing Youth (Un manuel pour la jeunesse de Droite) est maintenant disponible grâce à Arktos en anglais. Nous espérons qu’une version française verra le jour tôt ou tard. En effet, l’influence d’Evola sur la désormais célèbre Nouvelle Droite française et tous ses héritiers (des identitaires aux militants nationalistes-révolutionnaires et traditionalistes radicaux), sans oublier le fondateur du présent site, Georges Feltin-Tracol (4), et certains contributeurs tels Daniel Cologne (5) et votre serviteur lui-même, est tout simplement énorme.
Recensé : Paulin Ismard, 
Hélas, une partie non négligeable des livres de René Guénon ne sont plus disponible, notamment ceux édités par les Éditions Traditionnelles. Il fallait donc chiner chez les libraires ou sur le Net afin de trouver, parfois à des prix prohibitifs, certains ouvrages. Mais ça c’était avant, car les éditons Omnia Veritas (1) viennent de rééditer les dix-sept ouvrages majeurs de René Guénon ainsi que quelques recueils posthumes tels Études sur l’hindouisme (2). C’est un véritable plaisir de redécouvre certains travaux de Guénon comme L’erreur spirite (3), Aperçus sur l’ésotérisme chrétien (4) ou L’homme et son devenir selon le Vêdânta (5) pour un rapport qualité/prix plus que correct. 
The narrator, Mizoguchi, is physically weak, ugly in appearance, and afflicted with a stutter. This isolates him from others, and he becomes a solitary, brooding child. He first learns of the Golden Temple from his father, a frail country priest, and the image of the temple and its beauty becomes for him an idée fixe. The young Mizoguchi worships his vision of temple, but there are omens of what is to come. When a naval cadet visits his village and notices his stutter, Mizoguchi is resentful and retaliates by defacing the cadet’s prized scabbard. From the beginning, he realizes that the beauty of the temple represents an unattainable ideal: “if beauty really did exist there, it meant that my own existence was a thing estranged from beauty” (21). Over time, this seed in his mind metastasizes and begins to consume him.
All human beings possess a will to power in the Nietzschean sense. This finds its highest expression in self-actualization and self-mastery, and in the achievements of great artists, thinkers, and leaders, but in its lower forms is embodied by the desire of defective beings to assert themselves at all costs. This is manifested in Mizoguchi’s desire to destroy the temple, which intensifies in proportion to his realization that he will never be able to possess it or approach its beauty.
El 
Dennoch gelang es diesen Patrioten, im Verein mit mutigen Publizisten bemerkenswerte Schneisen in ein damaliges Meinungsklima zu schlagen, in dem die deutsche Teilung als „Garant des Friedens in Europa“ abgefeiert wurde. Ich erinnere nur an den großartigen, von Wolfgang Venohr 1982 herausgegebenen Band Die deutsche Einheit kommt bestimmt, der im Establishment für einige Unruhe sorgte.
La première partie intitulée « le feu dans le monde indo-européen » étudie successivement les noms du feu, ainsi que le rapport de l’un d’entre eux avec celui du souffle, la place du feu dans le formulaire reconstruit, les motifs, les énigmes, les paradoxes où il figure, dans la triade des couleurs, dans la cosmologie, la cosmogonie, l’eschatologie, les cycles temporels ; ses rapports avec les trois fonctions et les quatre cercles de l’appartenance sociale ; ses divers rôles dans la société et dans le panthéon. Une étude détaillée est consacrée à son emploi dans le culte et aux exemples d’un culte du Feu divin, qui constituent l’objet des deux parties suivantes.
C
La première partie de l’ouvrage est consacrée à un examen de la pensée de Khomeini avant 1979. Le lecteur y apprendra que dans son ouvrage Le Gouvernement du juriste, paru en 1970, Khomeini prend à contre-pied la tradition religieuse chiite qui se veut historiquement quiétiste et détachée des choses politiques. En théorisant l’institution du velayat-e faqih (traduit par le gouvernement du juriste ou du jurisconsulte), Khomeini entend répondre aux attentes messianiques chiites quant au retour de l’Imam caché (1) et « refonder le rapport des religions à l’autorité politique » (p. 25) en défendant un lien fondamental entre le domaine religieux et le domaine profane. Si ce projet est alors minoritaire au sein des intellectuels chiites, il a des précédents historiques importants : dès le XIIIe siècle, des penseurs ont imaginé une tutelle des mollahs sur la société afin de palier à l’absence de l’imam. Au XVIIe siècle, l’école osuli a créé le titre de marja-e taqlid (la source d’imitation), conçue comme une extension du pouvoir des imams. Le précédent le plus important est probablement celui de la période suivant de près la révolution constitutionnelle de 1905. En 1907, les religieux constitutionnalistes forment en effet un conseil religieux à même de contrôler la validité des lois (p. 28). J. Fabiani estime que Khomeini a synthétisé ces précédents tout en critiquant fermement le processus de sécularisation et de dé-islamisation engagé par le Shah à partir de 1970. Néanmoins, si la révolution fut islamiste, l’aura de Khomeini fut avant tout politique. Ce n’est qu’à partir de 1978, alors en exil à Paris, que Khomeini diffuse des enregistrements de discours mâtinés de références à la martyrologie chiite. Il procède alors à l’islamisation d’un mouvement avant tout social, dirigé contre la monarchie et la sécularisation à marche forcée menée par le Shah depuis la révolution blanche et les réformes de 1963. Le Shah était parvenu à s’aliéner l’intégralité des acteurs sociaux importants, du monde paysan aux grands propriétaires. Descendus dans la rue, ces acteurs participaient à une révolution nationale qui fut pourtant rapidement canalisée grâce à un dénominateur commun : l’islam (pp. 46-47). Le clergé chiite devint, en effet, un relai important de la contestation sûrement parce qu’il s’agissait là d’une institution bien ancrée dans le tissu social et fortement hiérarchisée.
Intellektuelle wie Greiner haben sich schon immer als kritisch verstanden. Daher waren sie links zu Zeiten, wo der Mainstream noch konservativ war. Heute ist es andersherum. Die Linken und die Grünen, die dominanten Akteure der Mehrheitsparteien, die „kommentierende Klasse in den Medien“: „Sie alle fürchten, die Hoheit über den sogenannten Diskurs zu verlieren und die bislang unangefochtene Macht, die moralischen Standards des Öffentlichen zu bestimmen. Käme es dahin, ich würde es begrüßen.“ (S.7) So leitet Greiner sein Buch ein. Der Autor wendet sich dagegen, „dass jede Abweichung von der Mitte nach rechts mit dem Nazi-Vorwurf mundtot gemacht“ werde (S.9).
![europanew[1].jpg](http://euro-synergies.hautetfort.com/media/00/02/2778127876.jpg)
, which is loosely based on the novel. A few of the novel’s characters and dramatic situations, as well as bits of dialogue, found their way into Blade Runner, often shorn of the context in which they made sense. But the movie and novel dramatically diverge on the fundamental question of what makes human beings different from androids, and in terms of the “myths” that provide the deep structure of their stories. 
In Blade Runner, what separates androids from humans is their lack of memories, whereas in the novel it is their lack of empathy. In the novel, the underlying myth is the passion of the Christ, specifically his persecution at the hands of the Jews (both the Jews who called for his death and their present-day descendants, who continue to mock him and his followers). In Blade Runner, however, it is the rebellion of Satan against God—and this time, Satan wins by murdering God. (I will deal with Blade Runner at greater length in 
One of the most surreal episodes in the novel ensues when Rick Deckard interviews android soprano Luba Luft in her dressing room at San Francisco’s War Memorial Opera House. (In the down-market Blade Runner, she is Zhora, the stripper with the snake.) Before Deckard can complete his interview and “retire” her, Luft turns the tables by calling the police.
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