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mercredi, 19 octobre 2011

La destruction des classes moyennes en France, en Europe et aux États-Unis

La destruction des classes moyennes en France, en Europe et aux États-Unis

par Marc ROUSSET

En Europe, la destruction, mais dans les pays émergents, la montée des classes moyennes, voilà où nous conduisent le libre échange mondialiste, les sociétés multinationales qui, à l’exemple de Renault, délocalisent, ainsi que les stock options des dirigeants embarqués dans un capitalisme au service exclusif des actionnaires, n’en déplaise à Mme Laurence Parisot, présidente du Medef. Seul le retour au capitalisme rhénan et à la préférence communautaire, avec des droits de douane sonnants et trébuchants, peut endiguer la catastrophe économique et sociale en cours !

 

Un symbole éloquent est fourni par l’entreprise américaine Apple. Ses produits sont conçus en Californie et assemblés en Chine par FoxconnApple, la deuxième plus grosse capitalisation mondiale après Exxon, que tous les bien pensants portent aux nues, fait travailler à peine une cinquantaine de milliers de salariés, chercheurs et cadres. Foxconn que  personne connaît fait travailler un million de salariés en Chine dans des emplois industriels ! Le Prix Nobel d’Économie Michael Spence constate que de 1990 à 2008, 98 % des vingt-sept millions d’emplois créés aux États-Unis l’ont été pour des secteurs travaillant exclusivement pour le marché intérieur américain, dont dix millions pour les agences gouvernementales et la santé. En revanche, les industries dont les produits sont exportables n’ont pas accru leurs emplois, sauf dans les métiers très hautement qualifiés. Le grand perdant est donc la classe moyenne employée dans l’industrie. Quant au professeur Alan Blinder,  ancien numéro deux de la Fed, il estime que 25 % de tous les emplois aux États-Unis sont potentiellement « délocalisables (1) ».

 

Il est cocasse de constater pendant le même temps et dans le même quotidien, l’émerveillement du brillantissime footballeur Edson  Arantes do Nascimento Pelé. L’ambassadeur du Brésil pour la Coupe du Monde de 2014 s’émerveille au contraire de l’apparition et de la montée des classes moyennes dans son pays : « Notre économie actuellement la septième du monde est diversifiée, innovante et elle allie croissance, stabilité, durabilité et inclusion sociale. Ces dix dernières  années, plus de quarante millions de personnes ont rejoint la classe moyenne, enfin majoritaire dans le pays (2). »

 

Avec l’expansion des échanges et la diffusion rapide des technologies vers les pays en développement, les employés européens sont confrontés à une concurrence croissante par delà les frontières. La Chine, l’Inde et les pays émergents dans une économie mondiale libéralisée et déréglementée provoquent plus qu’un doublement de l’offre de travail globale et un excès structurel de main d’œuvre permettant de faire porter sur les  salariés  l’ajustement aux nouvelles conditions de concurrence. Le fossé se creuse entre ceux qui sont à l’aise dans la mondialisation et le reste de la population, qui craint la précarité, la vulnérabilité, le déclassement social et se recroqueville sur ses avantages acquis.

 

Les classes moyennes tremblent en France pour leurs enfants, dont beaucoup obtiennent au mieux, des fonctions inférieures à des  diplômes, il est vrai, de plus en plus dévalorisés et inadaptés, et n’auront d’autre ressource que de brûler le patrimoine reçu en héritage (3). 80 % des emplois nouveaux créés en France relèvent de l’intérim, de C.D.D. (sept embauches sur dix), de stage, de travail à temps partiel et il arrive sur certains sites de l’industrie automobile que les effectifs soient à plus de 50 % intérimaires. La moitié des salariés – dont 52 % des cadres et 73 % des plus de cinquante ans – estiment qu’il leur serait « difficile de retrouver un emploi au moins équivalent » en cas de perte de celui qu’ils occupent actuellement (4). La fameuse « France d’en bas » est la conséquence directe de l’absence de véritables frontières douanières européennes.

 

Ce qui est vrai pour la France et les États-Unis se vérifie aussi en Allemagne où selon une étude de Joachim Frick et Markus Grabka, chercheurs à l’Institut pour la recherche en économie (D.I.W.) de Berlin, la classe moyenne, le « milieu », voit son importance décroître. En 2000, elle représentait encore plus de 62 % de la population allemande; en 2006, cette catégorie, autrement dit les Allemands qui gagnent entre 70 % et 150 % du revenu médian, était tombée à 54 %. Aujourd’hui en haut de l’échelle en Allemagne, les richesses issues du capital ne cessent d’augmenter. Selon Joachim Frick, « la répartition des revenus est plus inégale et plus polarisée qu’avant »; la confiance et l’optimisme des classes moyennes s’érodent en raison de la précarisation du travail; il est de plus en plus rare de disposer d’un emploi à temps plein et les salaires ne suffisent plus. Selon un quotidien économique en 2008, « l’Allemagne se découvre, 22 % de travailleurs pauvres ». Albrecht von Kalnein, directeur de la fondation Herbert-Quandt, explique ces changements par l’ouverture de la Chine, la mondialisation et la délocalisation des services et des emplois industriels. L’offre mondialisée exerce « une pression sur les salaires en Allemagne » explique Albrecht von Kalnein.

 

Les emplois délocalisés sont en général des emplois ouvriers stables, porteurs de technologie, d’investissements, favorisant d’autres emplois  et services grâce au pouvoir d’achat initialement créé par les  salaires de l’industrie, ce qui est la base même d’une économie saine. La qualité des emplois se dégrade et les Européens s’abrutissent de plus en plus à des tâches instables, peu gratifiantes et routinières; au-delà du problème du chômage stricto sensu se pose le problème de la dégradation continuelle et structurelle de la qualité de l’emploi. Les emplois créés pour pousser les vieillards dans leurs petites chaises roulantes, pour faire les courses des personnes malades, pour faire le ménage ou pour jardiner sont un exemple  d’emploi de services bas de gamme d’intérêt limité, sans avenir ni contenu technologique, des quasi-transferts de revenu qui portent en fait le nom d’emplois pour des pays décadents en voie de désindustrialisation rapide. Dans les statistiques officielles, ces emplois strictement alimentaires contribuent à la croissance d’un P.I.B. qui est en fait de plus en plus désindustrialisé ainsi qu’à la poudre aux yeux médiatique de la lutte victorieuse des gouvernements contre le chômage. Ce qui caractérisait les pays sous-développés et les économies de l’Ancien Régime, c’est le nombre incalculable de domestiques que faisaient vivre les nobles dans leurs châteaux et les classes  privilégiés dans leurs belles demeures !

 

Bien que sa politique ait conduit les États-Unis et le monde à une situation économique catastrophique, Alan Greenspan prétend que : « L’industrie manufacturière, c’est la technologie du XIXe siècle ! […] L’industrie manufacturière, ce n’est pas un secteur d’avenir. L’avenir est dans les idées qui servent à concevoir les produits. […] Il n’y a rien de sacro-saint qui justifie la préservation de l’industrie manufacturière au sens traditionnel du terme. Un pays qui défend son industrie manufacturière d’antan se condamne à voir son niveau de vie stagner ». Nous aimerions savoir comment l’ancien gouverneur de la Réserve fédérale américaine entend trouver du travail à trois cents millions d’Américains passant leur temps à concevoir des produits ! Dans les années 1950, l’industrie manufacturière représentait 27 % de l’économie et 30 % des emplois aux États-Unis; aujourd’hui, elle ne représente plus que 12 % du P.I.B. et un emploi sur dix. Le développement foudroyant de la Chine (70 % de son P.I.B. dans l’industrie) est là pour montrer que ce qu’affirme Alan Greenspan est complètement inexact !

 

Il est vital pour l’Europe de ne pas rester à l’écart du monde industriel moderne, de concevoir un développement industriel fort, créateur d’emplois pour la prochaine génération, d’assurer un renouvellement de son tissu manufacturier. Il importe de reconquérir avec des droits de douane et la préférence communautaire les trois millions d’emplois industriels perdus en France  pendant trente ans par la classe moyenne, au profit de celle de la Chine et des pays émergents.

 

Marc Rousset
Notes
1 : Jean-Pierre Robin, « Libres échanges », dans Le Figaro, 26 septembre 2011, p. 29.

 

2 : « Coupe du Monde. Une chance pour le Brésil », dans Le Figaro,  26 septembre 2011.

 

3 : Louis Chauvel, Les classes moyennes à la dérive, Le Seuil, 2006, 112 p.

 

4 : cf. l’Observatoire du travail – B.V.A. – L’Express, 14 – 29 septembre 2007.

 

5 : « Les conseils d’Alan Greenspan à la France », Le Figaro, 24 septembre 2007.

Article printed from Europe Maxima: http://www.europemaxima.com

URL to article: http://www.europemaxima.com/?p=2209

»Monsanto« vergiftete die Bevölkerung heimlich mit seinem Unkrautvernichter »Roundup«

»Monsanto« vergiftete die Bevölkerung heimlich mit seinem Unkrautvernichter »Roundup«

Jeffrey M. Smith

 

Dr. Andreas Carrasco saß in seinem von innen verschlossenen Fahrzeug und musste eingeschüchtert miterleben, wie eine johlende Menge zwei Stunden lang auf seinen Wagen einschlug und ihn beschimpfte. Seine Freunde, die es nicht mehr bis in das Fahrzeug geschafft hatten, hatten nicht so viel Glück. Einer von ihnen war am Ende wie gelähmt, ein anderer ohnmächtig. Die wütende Menge von etwa 100 Menschen war wahrscheinlich von einem örtlichen Reisbauern aufgehetzt worden, der über das, was Dr. Carrasco an diesem Tag vorhatte, verärgert war. Was hatte Carrasco denn so Schlimmes verbrochen? Er wollte die Menschen darüber aufklären, dass das Herbizid Roundup des BioTech-Konzerns Monsanto Schädigungen bei ungeborenen Tieren und wahrscheinlich auch Menschen hervorruft.

 

Carrasco gehört zu den führenden Embryologen der Medizinischen Hochschule der Universität der argentinischen Hauptstadt Buenos Aires und ist Mitglied des Nationalen Forschungsrates seines Landes. Er hatte von den erschreckenden Berichten über Bauern gehört, die in der Nähe der landwirtschaftlichen Großflächen leben, auf denen Glyphosat-tolerante Sojabohnen angepflanzt werden [Glyphosat ist der zentrale Wirkstoff des Breitbandherbizids Roundup.]. Diese Pflanzen wurden gentechnisch so verändert, dass sie auch die zumeist hohen Dosierungen des berüchtigten Monsato-Unkrautvernichters überstehen. Die bereits nach kurzer Zeit auftretenden Folgen der Versprühaktionen waren nicht zu übersehen: Hautausschläge, Kopfschmerzen, Appetitlosigkeit und sogar ein Todesfall. Der erst elfjährige Paraguayer Silvino Talavera, der im Jahr 2003 mit seinem Fahrrad in eine Sprühwolke des Herbizids geraten war, starb an den Folgen dieser Vergiftung. Aber Carrasco registrierte auch einen Anstieg der vorgeburtlichen Schädigungen, der Krebserkrankungen und anderer gesundheitlicher Störungen, die nun die Bauern und ihre Familien heimsuchten, die mit Roundup in Kontakt gekommen waren. Er beschloss daher, dieser Angelegenheit im Rahmen einer wissenschaftlichen Studie nachzugehen.

Mehr: http://info.kopp-verlag.de/hintergruende/enthuellungen/jeffrey-m-smith/-monsanto-vergiftete-die-bevoelkerung-heimlich-mit-seinem-unkrautvernichter-roundup-.html

 

00:10 Publié dans Actualité, Ecologie | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : actualité, écologie, monsanto, alimentation | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

Globalisierungchaos

G. Reisegger: Globalisierungchaos

mardi, 18 octobre 2011

La Russie paie pour la liberté arabe

 

La Russie paie pour la liberté arabe

 
Combien ont coûté les révolutions du Proche-Orient à la Russie ? Le printemps arabe est devenu un vrai mal de tête pour le business russe. Il a coûté très cher aux compagnies touristiques, qui ont perdu des milliers de clients, mais aussi à plusieurs entreprises qui avaient investi dans cette région.

"The lost Spring", Mounir Fatmi
Les pertes financières au Proche-Orient
EGYPTE
Centrale nucléaire d’Ed-Dabaa : 1,6 milliards de dollars
Les militaires qui ont pris le pouvoir pendant la période de transition ont gelé le projet de construction d’une centrale financée par la Russie.
La vente de blé : 700 millions – 1 milliard de dollars par an
Traditionnellement, la Russie fournissait du blé à l’Egypte de Moubarak. En 2011, après une longue période d’absence de concurrence sur la livraison de blé, c’est désormais l’Ukraine qui s’est positionnée pour répondre à l’appel d’offres.
La concurrence est grandissante également en provenance des pays européens qui ont eu une bonne récolte en 2011.
PROCHE-ORIENT
La livraison d’armements : 4,5 milliards de dollars
Selon les données du centre d’analyse du commerce international des armements, tel est le montant des pertes du complexe militaro-industriel russe depuis le début des révolutions arabes.
LIBYE
La livraison d’armements : 95 millions de dollars
Le directeur du service fédéral de la coopération militaro-technique Mikhaïl Dimitriïev a déclaré que les pertes du complexe-militaro industriel étaient de 95 millions de dollars rien que pour la Lybie.
Gazprom : 163 millions de dollars
C’est la somme qui a été versée par Gazprom pour la part d’ENI italien dans le projet de pétrole Elephant qui a été arrêté récemment.
Investissements dans l’infrastructure pétrolière : 43,8 millions de dollars
Ce sont les investissements de la compagnie TATNEFT du Tatarstan dans l’exploitation des gisements dans les régions de Ghadamès et Syrte.
La construction de chemins de fer : 3,2 milliards de dollars
Il s’agit du projet de chemin de fer Benghazi- Syrte commandé à la Compagnie des chemins de fer russes –RZhD-. Il aurait dû devenir la principale ligne ferroviaire le long de la côte nord de l’Afrique.
SYRIE
Gisements de pétrole : plus de 60 millions de dollars
Ce sont les investissements directs de la compagnie TATNEFT dans les quatre gisements à l’Est de la Syrie. Les ressources des gisements de Kichma sont estimées à 4,9 millions de tonnes : si on prend le prix actuel du baril de pétrole et l’accord passé sur le partage de la production, cela signifie que si TATNEFT doit partir, il perdra 965 millions de dollars.
Gazoduc vers la Turquie : 180 millions de dollars
C’est la compagnie Stroïtransgaz qui en était chargée.
La livraison de blé : 280-300 millions de dollars par an
La Syrie a été le cinquième importateur de blé russe en achetant en moyenne 8% de la production annuelle. Avec la chute éventuelle du régime de Bachar Al-Assad, on peut se poser la question quant à l’avenir des échanges dans le secteur.
La livraison d’armements: 300 millions de dollars
Les missiles Yakhont dont la livraison avait été dénoncée par Israël ne seront certainement pas affrétés.
L’opinion des Russes arabes
Oleg Borozdyn, un entrepreneur d’Ekaterinbourg immigré en Egypte et converti à l’Islam est propriétaire d’une société juridique : « L’Egypte est un pays béni. Tu connais les Pharaons ? Ils étaient des impies. C’est pourquoi Dieu leur a envoyé des prophètes pour les rendre plus dociles. C’est la même chose qui s’est passée avec Moubarak. Tu me demandes quelles sont les attentes des Egyptiens après la Révolution ? On espère que la situation va s’améliorer dans le domaine de la santé et de la sécurité sociale, et si Dieu le veut, les retraites ne seront plus accordées seulement aux fonctionnaires ». Sergueï Kim, ressortissant du Kazakhstan habitant en Syrie : « Ici on s’oriente de plus en plus vers la qualité pour des prix acceptables. Les dernières déclarations de la Russie contre la résolution de l’ONU ont anéanti les illusions des simples Syriens sur la Russie. Et les autres, au contraire, lui sont restés fidèles comme des chiens ».
Information recueillie par NINA FASCIAUX et MARIA GORKOVSKAYA
Source : Ruskïi reporter
 
NOTA BENE:
A voir les pertes considérables que ce pseudo "printemps arabe" aura engendrées dans l'économie de la Russie, on peut honnêtement se demander si la Russie ne serait pas LA cible ultime de ces bouleversements dans la région méditerranéenne.

LA LORGNETTE DE LA 3ème GUERRE MONDIALE.pdf

L'Occident, un crime contre l'imaginaire européen

L'OCCIDENT, UN CRIME CONTRE L'IMAGINAIRE EUROPEEN

Jure Georges Vujic, un écrivain „contre-bandier“ d'idées

 

A propos du livre „Un Ailleurs européen -Hestia sur les rivages de Brooklyn“

Avatar Editions, mai 2011

 

un ailleurs europeen.jpg„La tradition est inversée. L’Europe ne raconte plus l’Occident. C’est l’Occident qui comte l’Europe. La marche en avant des proto-iraniens, peuples de cavaliers vers leur foyer « européen », la « hache barbare » du peuple des demi-dieux hyperboréens, Alexandre, Charlemagne, Hoffenstaufen, Charles Quint, Napoléon ne font plus rêver. L’Occident hyperréel sublimé, le mirage du « standing », du bonheur à la carte est le songe éveillé et névrotique du quart-monde favellisé, d’un imaginaire tiers-mondiste « bolly-woodisé ». Il n’y a plus de grand métarécit européen faute de diégèse authentiquemment européenne. La « mimesis vidéosphérique » occidentale dévoile, déshabille, montre et remontre dans l’excès de transparence. Loin des rivages de l’Hellade, Hestia s’est trouvé un nouveau foyer sur les bords de Brooklyn, aussi banal et anonyme que les milliers d’« excréments existentiels » qui jonchent les rivages de Long Island.“

 

C'est sur ce constat pessimiste que l'on pourrait très bien résumer le dernier livre de Maitre Jure Georges Vujic, (écrivain franco-croate),   intitulé  „ Un Ailleurs européen-Hestia sur les rivages de Brooklyn ». Ce livre qui sort aux éditions Avatar, pourrait très bien être autobiographique, l'auteur y mêlant avec un langage á la fois lapidaire, incisif et au style hermétique, á la fois des éléments mémorialistes et anthologiques, mais aussi analytiques qui rendent très bien compte de l'état de la crise á la fois politique , spirituelle  et identitaire que traverse aujourd'hui l'Europe. Au fil d'une méditation et d'une réflexion personnelle que l'auteur qualifie de „contrebandière“ „transversale“ et „asymétrique „ Vujic se livre á un défrichage intellectuel des contradictions et de maux internes qui accablent l'Europe contemporaine. Dans le cadre de cette réflexion, il l'oppose l'idée  d’Europe, éminemment spirituelle, aristocratique, organique et plurielle á l'occidentisme contemporain mercantile, néolibéral, techniciste americanocentré contemporain. Selon lui : « L’Europe d’après 1945 et l’Europe de nos jours ne sont guère différentes et présentent des similitudes flagrantes ou plutôt portent les mêmes stigmates « décadentistes » de la « fin d’un monde », . Depuis la guerre froide jusqu’au monde unipolaire américanocentré de nos jours, l’Europe semble inéluctablement engagée dans une lente agonie á la fois « festives «  et « hyper-réelle » caractérisée par un climat généralisé de déliquescence, la corruption des « idées » et mœurs, l’anomie généralisée, l’absence de « sens et de principes métaphysiques », l’irresponsabilité et la pusillanimité des démocraties parlementaires, l’imposture libérale et le déclin de la notion de souveraineté. La blessure et l’humiliation infligées à l’Europe au lendemain de 1945 ne cessèrent de grandir et d’affecter les organismes vivants que sont les peuples européens : d’est en ouest les mêmes maux accablent l’Europe d’hier comme celle d’aujourd’hui, et je persiste à croire que les mêmes remèdes restent indispensables pour une renaissance authentiquement européenne. »

Il convient de reconnaitre á l’auteur le mérite  et l’audace de vouloir á travers cette démonstration littéraire concilier les thèses et les pensées d’écrivains et penseurs de la « droite révolutionnaire » ou de la « tradition »« » tels que Jünger, Évola, Bardèche, Salomon, avec des penseurs contemporains « post-structuralistes » et « dé-constructivistes » classés à gauche, tels que Derrida, Deleuze, Guattari, Cacciari, Foucault ou Baudrillard. Vujic prône une reconquête de cet esprit européen originel mais sans tomber dans le carcan  d’un discours passéiste et néoromantique antimoderniste. »Remonter à l’essence, à la source spirituelle de la pensée européenne, c’est reconnaître que dans sa solidarité comme dans sa diversité. Cette Europe « plurielle » et « buissonnière » apparaissait ainsi dès le XIXe siècle aux plus hauts et sages de nos penseurs à un Goethe, un Renan. Michelet, Proudhon, Quinet, fils de 1789 et militants de la génération de 1848, traitaient déjà des thèmes socialistes et nationaux : respect de la force, critique de la démocratie, culte du travail et de la patrie, contre-religion. La génération de 14 et la « camaraderie » de 1945 feront entendre la même mélodie martiale : reconquête de la virilité, fidélité à la fraternité des tranchées, exaltation de l’héroïsme guerrier ; Péguy, E. von Salomon, Moeller Van den Bruck, E. Jünger, Georges Sorel apportaient un bain de jouvence révolutionnaire à la pensée nationale. La pensée de Vujic est manifestement « oecuménique «  et reflète bien son idiosyncrasie personnelle,  qui tente dedépasser la simple dimension réactive d’une pensée hétéroclite et à la fois cohérente, pour en extraire les matrices constantes et stables qui imprègnent les diverses chapelles de pensées dites de « droite » ou de « gauche », le plus souvent dispersées voire rivales.

vujic foto.jpgEn abordant la question du devenir de l’Europe, l’auteur rend compte des mutations du „monde européen“ contemporain dans le sens symbolique, essentialiste et métaphysique, asphyxié sous l’empire d'un „occidentalo-centrisme“ mécaniciste qui l'a indéniablement absorbé et consumé, est qui du reste constitue son degré zéro de la puissance symbolique.  Il constate  que l'Europe actuelle  s'est mise aux couleurs de l’Occident qui, dans ses excès, dans son absurdité, produit une fatale réversion pour se transformer en son exact contraire : un extrême-occident impérialiste et mortiphère. Au de la de toute pensée passéiste , a l’opposé des formules réactionnaires et restauratrices, Vujic fait preuve d’une extrême lucidité en appelant á  constater le monde en soi, l’Europe contemporaine « en soi »  c'est-à-dire par ce qu'elle nous offre de plus concret. Cette approche qui nous rappelle l’attitude d’un Jünger ( réalisme tragique), le gai savoir d’un Nietzche et « l’être au monde » d’un  Merleau-Ponty, conduit l’auteur á la réflexion su « l’ailleurs européen » le miroir- inversion, la version spéculaire d’une Europe « kidnappée » par l’occidentisme contemporain. » Défendre le passé d'une Europe „originelle“, intact et mythique consisterait en une opération tautologique qui tendrait á s'opposer á son propre devenir et de défendre son propre „simulacre“, car il faut partir du simple constant que l'esprit prométhéen européen a bel et bien depuis l'antiquité enfanté l'occidentisme hypermoderne actuelle. L'Europe d'hier s'est irrmédiablement  retournée en son contraire, l'Occident contemporain. » C’est ce qui l fait dire a l’auteur que l’Europe actuelle est en proie « au jeu de simulacres ». « La « simulacr-isation » de l’Europe sous forme de produits consuméristes, d’images d’épinal, d’archétypes culturels, de stéréotypes touristiques ne fait que simuler d'autres simulacres sois-disants « évènementiels » « rétrospectifs » ou « ostensibles » . Toute méta-narration incantatoire, tout grand-récit, toute notion de « grande politique »  á la fois « vectorielle » et « vertêbrante », d'une œuvre originale, d'un événement authentique, d'une réalité première a disparu, pour ne plus laisser la place qu'au jeu des simulacres ». En ceci,  Vujic  rejoint l'analyse nietzschéenne de la vérité comme voile, et de la pudeur de la féminité, ensemble de voiles qui ne font que voiler d'autres voiles. Ôtez tous les voiles, et il ne reste plus rien. ». Pour lui l’occident contemporain est «  avant tout un paysage sociétal, de « landscape » virtuel. Souffrant d’un vide identitaire et d’une absence de paternité, L'Europe s'est peu á peu transformer en super-usine occidentale qui produit á l’excès une idéologie économiciste de marché, des valeurs exclusivement consuméristes , une prolifération sans frein de développement technologique, de progrès infini, et s'est fait le porte drapeau d’une morale totalitaire planétaire, qui 'est donnée pour but de réaliser le rêve utopique d'une „unite intégrale“ mondiale.

La structure du livre quasi-photographique pourrait très bien être celle d’un scénario de Godart alors que le séquençage rappelle les actes du théâtre antique- La méprise, la Forclusion, ect… au nombreuses  références de la mythologie grecque. Le style de l’auteur est á la fois baroque et dépouillé, et témoigne d’une curieuse « sérendipité » comme l’aime  l’appeler l’auteur qui nous plonge dans un récit dystopique,  métapolitique et philosophique qui n’en finit pas d’interroger au gré des chapitres.

Le parcours narratif de l’auteur, est hanté par la présence du personnage parabolique et métaphorique d’Hestia, une sorte de déesse postmoderne du foyer et de l’identité, mi-démon mi-ange, qui au gré du cheminement réflexif de l’auteur, rôde telle une vagabond en quête de sens sur les rivages de Brooklyn, comme leitmotiv d’un Occident désoeuvré, spirituellement ravagé et vidé, un peu comme dans un film noir,  mêlant les accents d’un Kerouac  ou d’un Céline.

„Que faire ? Hestia devra-t-elle chevaucher ce nouveau paysage extrême-occidental, c’est-à-dire faire en sorte que ce paysage devienne le centre de l’aventure d’une nouvelle extension métaidentitaire ? Faire l’expérience d’une nouvelle déconstruction identitaire par « l’archipélisation » ? La tâche de Hestia est celle du poète qui s’efforce de diffuser la totalité dans son lieu, trouver et inscrire « l’Ailleurs » dans « l’Ici ». Faire d’un territoire hostile et rival un lieu commun. Le génie « européen » qui avait pensé sensiblement le monde, qui l’avait dompté et conquis en l’accaparant dans la raison instrumentaire et intelligible avait fini par être consumé par la res cogitans occidentale, un « Nouveau monde » qui l’avait pulvérisé dans la sphère de l’intelligible et la surreprésentation excessive. En un mot l’esprit européen avait lui-même enfanté une image criminelle de lui-même. Et si c’était vrai ? Si l’Occident n’avait été que ça : un crime contre l’imaginaire ? S’il n’était rien d’autre qu’une machine à sublimer qui n’a cessé de servir le plus sournois des cultes de la représentation et de la raison discursive ? L’Occident en tant que processus de désenchantement irréversible ?“

 

La question reste ouverte, l’auteur ne nous offre pas des réponses toutes faites, L’intertextualité et les thèses critiques de Vujic sont éminemment politiquement incorrect, contestataires et  « réfractaires », mais aussi pédagogiques et anticipatrices ouvrant diverses pistes de réflexions, de nouvelles lignes de fuites dans la pensée unique. Le grand mérite de ce livre est de mettre en exergue et d’offrir au de lá  des schémas de critique « binaire »,« un archipel de « litteralité » qui regroupe des pensées de générations différentes

C’est pourquoi , dans le contexte de la pensée unique dominante, Vujic fait incontestablement preuve d’un liberté de pensée indéniablement subversive car  l’acte de penser librement et en toute indépendance est indéniablement « subversif », acte non pas illégal mais a-légal, qui se situe en amont du systémisme et du positivisme dominant. Le livre est á recommander á tous les esprits épris de sens et d’amour pour une certaine idée de l’Europe. On parle de la fameuse quête du sens en oubliant que la question du sens est inséparable de la mise en question du sens établi.

 

Edouard Largny

Journaliste et critique littéraire

Occupy Wall Street: Die künstliche Opposition der Neuen Weltordnung

Occupy Wall Street: Die künstliche Opposition der Neuen Weltordnung

Oliver Janich

 

»Zwei Dinge sind unendlich, das Universum und die menschliche Dummheit, aber bei dem Universum bin ich mir nicht ganz sicher«. Mein Lieblingszitat von Albert Einstein könnte über vielen Artikel stehen, aber wenn es um die Occupy-Bewegung geht, trifft es den Nagel wirklich auf den Kopf.

 

Eines vorab: Ich meine nicht, dass jeder, der dort mitmacht, ein Idiot ist. Viele haben berechtigte Zweifel am System und wollen einfach etwas tun. Man kann auch nicht von jedem, der auf die Straße geht, verlangen, dass er erstmal unzählige Bücher über das Geldsystem liest. Aber von den Rädelsführern und denen, die sich ins Fernsehen einladen lassen, darf man das schon verlangen.

Es ist immer schwer zu unterscheiden, ob etwas aus böser Absicht oder aus Dummheit geschieht. War Angela Merkel im Mai 2010 bei der ersten Griechenlandhilfe, als das Desaster begann, aus Zufall in Moskau oder hat sie sich die Befehle ihres Führungsoffiziers abgeholt? Stimmen die Abgeordneten der Ausplünderung Deutschlands zu, weil sie irgendjemand in der Hand hat oder sind sie so doof? Wer weiß das schon?

Mehr: http://info.kopp-verlag.de/hintergruende/geostrategie/oliver-janich/occupy-wall-street-die-kuenstliche-opposition-der-neuen-weltordnung.html

Richard Melisch - Globalisierung - Der letzte Akt

Richard Melisch - Globalisierung - Der letzte Akt

lundi, 17 octobre 2011

La conquista statunitense dell’Africa: Il ruolo di Francia e Israele

La conquista statunitense dell’Africa: Il ruolo di Francia e Israele

 

Introduzione: l’”Operazione Gladio” Ieri e oggi …

Comincerò con lo scandalo dell’Operazione Gladio che culminò nell’omicidio dell’ex Primo Ministro italiano, Aldo Moro, che nel giorno del suo rapimento, doveva annunciare un governo di coalizione che includeva il Partito comunista italiano.


Un leader del Partito della Democrazia Cristiana a quel tempo, Francesco Cossiga, ammette nel documentario della BBC Timewatch del 1992 sull’Operazione Gladio, che aveva scelto di “sacrificare” Moro “per il bene della Repubblica.” Non diversamente dagli omicidi mirati cui il governo degli Stati Uniti si impegna in tutto il mondo, in cui qualcuno emette decisioni extra-giudiziarie su chi vive e chi muore. Nel documentario in tre parti, Cossiga afferma che la decisione ha fatto divenire i suoi capelli bianchi.
L’Operazione Gladio è il brutto racconto reale della decisione del governo degli Stati Uniti di assumere i membri dell’apparato statale di sicurezza di vari paesi europei, e in collaborazione con gli alleati, seminare il terrore tra cittadini innocenti, facendo esplodere stazioni ferroviarie, sparare sui clienti nei negozi, e persino uccidere agenti di polizia, al fine di convincere le popolazioni dell’Europa a rinunciare ai propri diritti, in cambio di alcune misure di sicurezza e di un maggiore potere dello stato.
Sì, l’Operazione Gladio, insieme con l’Operazione Northwoods e la politica statunitense verso la Libia, ci mostra che gli Stati Uniti sono disposti a creare gruppi terroristici per giustificare la lotta contro i terroristi! Purtroppo, questo è diventato il modus operandi del nostro governo in Afghanistan e Pakistan, Europa e Africa. E il governo degli Stati Uniti, dopo il 11/9/01, è diventato il “laboratorio di Gladio” delle politiche statali che stracciano le leggi degli Stati Uniti, fanno a brandelli il diritto e mente all’opinione pubblica.


L’inizio della fine dell’Operazione Gladio si è verificata quando l’esistenza del programma degli Stati Uniti venne rivelato. Tipicamente, invece di fermarsi su tale follia, gli europei si unirono alla creazione di molteplici altre “Operazioni Gladio“. Collocato in questo contesto, la seconda parte della serie in quattro parti di Mahdi Darius Nazemroaya che rivela come la politica degli Stati Uniti in Libia, sia proprio in linea con le azioni degli Stati Uniti nel passato. A mio parere, la Libia non sarà l’ultima occasione per tali attività illegali, a meno che non fermiamo il nostro governo.
Insieme al francese documentarista Julien Teil, Nazemroaya tesse lo scenario ‘incredibile-ma-vero’ dei presunti terroristi finanziati dagli US, ricercati dall’Interpol, e che divennero i protagonisti principali del genocidio della NATO che si svolge attualmente in Libia.

Cynthia McKinney, 1 ottobre 2011.

Cynthia McKinney è un ex membro del Congresso degli Stati Uniti, che è stata eletta in due diverso distretti federali della Georgia, per la Camera dei Rappresentanti USA, nel 1993-2003 e nel 2005-2007, come membro del Partito Democratico degli Stati Uniti. E’ stata anche la candidata alla presidenza, nel 2008, del partito dei Verdi. Mentre era al Congresso degli Stati Uniti, ha operato nella Commissione Finanze e Banche degli Stati Uniti, nel Comitato per la sicurezza nazionale degli Stati Uniti (in seguito ribattezzato Comitato sulle Forze Armate degli Stati Uniti), e nel comitato per gli affari esteri negli Stati Uniti (in seguito ribattezzato comitato sulle relazioni internazionali degli Stati Uniti). Ha anche operato  nella sottocommissione per le relazioni internazionali degli Stati Uniti sulle  operazioni internazionali e i diritti umani. McKinney ha  condotto due missioni in Libia e anche recentemente terminato un tour nazionale  negli Stati Uniti, sponsorizzata dalla Coalizione ANSWER, sulla campagna di bombardamenti della NATO in Libia.

Ordine dal Caos?


Una ripetizione del disordine e del pandemonio generato in Afghanistan è in cantiere per il continente africano. Gli Stati Uniti, con l’aiuto di Gran Bretagna, Pakistan e Arabia Saudita, hanno creato i brutali taliban e poi, alla fine, combattere una guerra contro i suoi alleati taliban. Allo stesso modo, in tutta l’Africa, gli Stati Uniti e i loro alleati, stanno creando una nuova serie di futuri nemici da combattere, ma dopo aver inizialmente lavorato con essi o utilizzandoli per seminare i semi del caos in Africa.
Washington ha letteralmente aiutato le insurrezioni con finanziamenti e progetti di cambiamento di regime in Africa. “Diritti umani” e “democratizzazione” sono utilizzati anche come  cortina fumogena del colonialismo e della guerra. I cosiddetti diritti umani e le organizzazioni umanitarie, sono ormai partner in questo progetto imperialista contro l’Africa.

Francia e Israele: sono le outsourcing di Washington  per le operazioni sporche in Africa?

 


L’Africa è solo un fronte internazionale per un sistema imperiale in espansione. I meccanismi di un vero e proprio sistema globale imperiale sono al lavoro in questo senso. Washington agisce attraverso la NATO e dei suoi alleati in Africa. Ognuno degli alleati e dei satelliti di Washington, ha un ruolo specifico da svolgere in questo sistema globale dell’impero. Tel Aviv ha svolto un ruolo molto attivo nel continente africano. Israele è stato uno dei principali sostenitori del Sud Africa durante il regime dell’apartheid. Tel Aviv ha anche aiutato a contrabbandare armi in Sudan e in Africa orientale, per balcanizzare quella grande nazione africana, contribuendo alla destabilizzazione dell’Africa orientale. Gli israeliani sono stati molto attivi in Kenya e Uganda. Israele è stato presente ovunque ci fossero conflitti, compresi quelli relativi ai diamanti insanguinati.


Israele sta ora lavorando con Washington per stabilire l’egemonia totale sul continente africano. Tel Aviv è attivamente coinvolto – attraverso i suoi legami commerciali e le operazioni di intelligence – per garantire i contatti e gli accordi richiesti da Washington per l’estensione dei suoi interessi in Africa. Uno dei principali obiettivi di Washington è interrompere lo sviluppo dell’influenza cinese in Africa. Israele e i think-tank israeliani, hanno anche svolto un ruolo importante nel plasmare il geo-stratagemma degli Stati Uniti in Africa.


La Francia, come un ex padrone coloniale e potenza in declino, invece, è sempre stata un rivale e concorrente di Washington nel continente africano. Con l’aumento dell’influenza di potenze non tradizionali in Africa, come la Repubblica popolare cinese, sia Washington che Parigi hanno previsto modalità di cooperazione. Sul più ampio palcoscenico globale, questo è anche evidente. Sia gli Stati Uniti che molte delle maggiori potenze dell’Unione europea, considerano la Cina e le altre potenze emergenti come una minaccia globale. Hanno deciso di porre fine alla loro rivalità e di lavorare insieme. Così, un accordo tra Washington e l’Unione europea è stato preso, portando ad alcune forme di integrazione politica. Questo consenso può anche essere stato prodotto dalla crescente influenza degli Stati Uniti in capitali europee. In ogni caso, è stato potenziato dall’inizio della presidenza di Nicolas Sarkozy, nel 2007.


Il presidente Sarkozy non ha perso tempo spingendo per la reintegrazione della struttura di comando militare francese in seno alla NATO. Le conseguenze di questa azione ha portato alla subordinazione dei militari francesi al Pentagono. Nel 1966, il presidente Charles de Gaulle trasse fuori dalla Nato le forze francesi e rimosse la Francia dalle strutture di comando militare della NATO, come mezzo per mantenere l’indipendenza francese. Nicolas Sarkozy ha invertito tutto ciò. Nel 2009, Sarkozy ha ordinato che la Francia si unisse alla struttura di comando militare integrato della NATO. Nel 2010, ha anche firmato un accordo per iniziare la fusione dei militari inglesi e francesi.
Nel continente africano, Parigi è un luogo speciale o di nicchia nel sistema dell’impero globale statunitense. Questo ruolo è quello di un gendarme regionale in Nord Africa, Africa occidentale, Africa centrale, e in tutti i paesi che erano ex colonie francesi. Il ruolo speciale della Francia, in altre parole, è dovuto alla sua storia e all’attuale, anche se calante, posizione della Francia in Africa, in particolare attraverso la “Françafrique.” L’Unione del Mediterraneo, che Sarkozy ha lanciato ufficialmente, è un esempio di questi interessi francesi in Nord Africa.


Il National Endowment for Democracy (NED) ha inoltre lavorato con la Federazione Internazionale dei Diritti Umani (Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l’Homme, FIDH) della Francia La FIDH è ben consolidata in Africa. Il NED ha essenzialmente esternalizzato verso il FIDH il suo lavoro nel manipolare e controllare i governi, i movimenti, le società e gli stati africani. E’ stata la FIDH e la Lega libico per i diritti umani (LLHR) affiliata, che hanno contribuito a orchestrare i vari pretesti per la guerra della NATO contro la Libia, approvata dal Consiglio di sicurezza attraverso dichiarazioni infondate e false.

Il National Endowment for Democracy e la sua Partnersip con la Federazione Internazionale dei Diritti Umani in Africa


In seguito all’elezione di Nicolas Sarkozy nel 2007 a leader della Repubblica francese, la Federazione Internazionale per i Diritti Umani (FIDH) ha iniziato a sviluppare una vera e propria partnership con il National Endowment for Democracy. Entrambe le organizzazioni sono anche partner in seno al Movimento Mondiale per la Democrazia. Carl Gershman, presidente del NED, si recò in Francia nel dicembre 2009 per incontrare la FIDH e approfondire la collaborazione tra le due organizzazioni, e anche per discutere dell’Africa. [1] Ha anche incontrato persone che sono sono considerati come lobbisti  pro-Israele in Francia.
La partnership tra la FIDH e la NED è per lo più basata in Africa e nel mondo arabo, dove si interseca. Queste partnership operano in una zona che comprende paesi come la Costa d’Avorio (Costa d’Avorio), il Niger, e la Repubblica Democratica del Congo. Il Nord Africa, che comprende la Libia e Algeria, è stata una determinata area focalizzata dalla FIDH, dove Washington, Parigi e la NATO hanno chiaramente grandi ambizioni.
La FIDH, che è direttamente coinvolta nel lancio della guerra contro la Libia, ha ricevuto anche finanziamenti diretti, sotto forma di sovvenzioni, dal National Endowment for Democracy per i suoi programmi in Africa. Nel 2010, una sovvenzione di 140.186 dollari del NED (Stati Uniti) è stata uno degli ultimi importi indicati dalla FIDH per il suo lavoro in Africa. [2] Il NED è stato anche uno dei primi firmatari, insieme con la Lega libica per i diritti umani (LLHR) e l’osservatorio delle Nazioni Unite, a chiedere l’intervento internazionale contro la Libia. [3]

AFRICOM e la strada post-9/11 verso la conquista dell’Africa

 


Nel 2002, il Pentagono ha iniziato importanti operazioni volte a controllare militarmente l’Africa. Questo ebbe la forma del Pan-Sahel Initiative, che è stata lanciata dal Comando europeo degli Stati Uniti (EUCOM) e dall’US Central Command (CENTCOM). Sotto la bandiera di questo progetto, l’esercito statunitense avrebbe addestrato le truppe di Mali, Ciad, Mauritania e Niger. I piani per stabilire la Pan-Sahel Initiative, tuttavia, risalgono al 2001, quando l’iniziativa per l’Africa fu effettivamente lanciata dopo i tragici eventi dell’11 settembre 2001 (9/11). Washington chiaramente pianificava delle azioni militari in Africa, che già comprendevano almeno tre paesi (Libia, Somalia e Sudan) identificati come bersagli nemici da attaccare, da parte del Pentagono e della Casa Bianca, secondo il Generale Wesley Clark.


Jacques Chirac, il presidente della Francia, al momento, ha cercato di opporre resistenza alla spinta degli Stati Uniti in Africa, rinvigorendo il ruolo della Germania in Africa, come mezzo per sostenere la Francia. Nel 2007, per la prima volta il vertice franco-africano aprì le sue porte anche alla partecipazione tedesca. [4] Tuttavia, Angela Merkel aveva idee diverse sulla direzione e la posizione che la partnership franco-tedesca dovrebbe prendere rispetto a Washington.
Nel 2001, lo slancio verso la creazione dell’Africa Command degli Stati Uniti (AFRICOM) era iniziato. AFRICOM, tuttavia, è stato ufficialmente autorizzato nel dicembre 2006, e la decisione di crearlo è stato annunciato alcuni mesi poco dopo, nel febbraio 2007. Fu nel 2007 che AFRICOM fu creato. E’ importante notare che questo slancio ricevette anche l’incoraggiamento di Israele, a causa degli interessi di Israele in Africa. L’Istituto di Alti Studi Strategici e Politici (IASPS), per esempio, è stata una delle organizzazioni israeliane che hanno sostenuto la creazione di AFRICOM. Sulla base del Pan-Sahel Initiative, la Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative (TSCTI) fu lanciata dal Pentagono nel 2005, sotto il comando del CENTCOM. Mali, Ciad, Mauritania e Niger furono ora raggiunti da Algeria, Mauritania, Marocco, Senegal, Nigeria e Tunisia, nel giro  della cooperazione militare africana con il Pentagono. Più tardi, la Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative svenne trasferita al comando di Africom, il 1° ottobre 2008, quando AFRICOM fu attivato.

Il Sahel e il Sahara: gli Stati Uniti adottano chiaramente i vecchi progetti coloniali della Francia in Africa

 


Combattere il terrorismo” e eseguire “missioni umanitarie“, sono solo facciate o cortine fumogene per Washington e i suoi alleati. Mentre gli obiettivi dichiarati del Pentagono sono combattere il terrorismo in Africa, gli obiettivi reali di Washington sono ristrutturare l’Africa e stabilire un ordine neo-coloniale. A questo proposito, Washington ha effettivamente adottato i progetti coloniali
 della Francia in Africa. Ciò include anche l’iniziativa inglese, italiana, statunitense e francese per dividere la Libia, dal 1943, così come l’iniziativa unilaterale francese per ridisegnare il Nord Africa. In questo schema, gli Stati Uniti e le sue coorti hanno intenzione di creare guerre etniche e odio settario tra i berberi, gli arabi ed altri in Nord Africa.


La mappa utilizzata da Washington per combattere il terrorismo sotto la Pan-Sahel Initiative la dice lunga. Il campo o area di attività dei terroristi, entro i confini di Algeria, Libia, Niger, Ciad, Mali e Mauritania, in base alla designazione di Washington, è molto simile ai confini o limiti del soggetto coloniale territoriale che la Francia ha cercato di sostenere in Africa, nel 1957. Parigi aveva progettato di sostenere questa entità africane nel Sahara occidentale e centrale, come dipartimento francese (provincia) direttamente legato alla Francia, insieme alla coste dell’Algeria.
Questa entità coloniale francese nel Sahara è stata nominata Organizzazione Comune delle Regioni del Sahara (Organisation commune des regions sahariennes, OCR). Comprendeva i confini interni dei paesi del Sahel e del Sahara di Mali, Niger, Ciad e Algeria. L’obiettivo francese era raccogliere e vincolare tutti i territori ricchi di risorse naturali di questi paesi in questa entità centrale, l’OCR, per il controllo e l’estrazione francesi. Le risorse in questo settore comprendono petrolio, gas e uranio. Eppure, i movimenti della resistenza in Africa, e in particolare la lotta per l’indipendenza algerina, ha inferto a Parigi un duro colpo. La Francia ha dovuto rinunciare alla sua ricerca e infine dissolvere la OCR nel 1962, a causa dell’indipendenza algerina e della presa di posizione anti-coloniale in Africa. A causa della spinta verso l’indipendenza in Africa, la Francia fu finalmente tagliato fuori dall’entroterra nel Sahara che voleva controllare.


Washington aveva chiaramente in mente questa zona ricca di energia e ricco di risorse, quando ha disegnato le aree dell’Africa che hanno bisogno di essere purificate dalle presunte cellule e bande terroristiche. L’Istituto Francese di Relazioni Internazionali (Institut français des relazioni internationals, IFRI), ha anche apertamente discusso  questo legame tra terroristi e zone ricche di energia, in un report del marzo 2011. [5] E’ in questo contesto che la fusione di interessi e le aziende franco-tedeschi e anglo-statunitensi, hanno consentito alla Francia di diventare parte integrante del sistema imperiale globale statunitense, con interessi comuni.

Regime Change in Libia e il National Endowment for Democracy: un nesso tra  terrorismo e diritti umani

 


Dal 2001, gli Stati Uniti si sono falsamente presentati come il campione contro il terrorismo. La Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative (TSCTI), che ha aperto le porte di AFRICOM in Africa, è stata giustificata come necessaria da Washington per combattere le organizzazioni come il Gruppo Salafita per la Predicazione e il Combattimento (GSPC) in Algeria, e il Gruppo combattente islamico libico (LIFG) in Libia. Eppure, Washington sta collaborando e utilizzando questi stessi gruppi in Libia, insieme con il Fronte Nazionale per la Salvezza della Libia e i Fratelli Musulmani, come soldati di fanteria e ascari. Inoltre, molte delle persone chiave libiche sono membri del National Endowment for Democracy (NED), e sono membri di questi gruppi, e hanno anche fatto parte di conferenze e progetti di lunga data, che spingevano a un cambiamento di regime in Libia.
Uno degli incontri chiave per stabilire quello che sarebbe diventato l’attuale Consiglio di transizione in Libia, ha avuto luogo nel 1994, quando il Centro per gli Studi Strategici e Internazionali (CSIS) ha organizzato una conferenza con Ashur Shamis e Aly (Ali) Abuzakuuk. Il titolo della conferenza del 1994 era “La Libia post-Gheddafi: prospettive e  promesse“. Nel 2005 un altro convegno con Shamis Ashur si tenne nella capitale britannica, Londra, dove si sarebbe costruita l’idea del cambiamento di regime in Libia. [6] Allora, chi sono questi esponenti dell’opposizione libica? Una serie di domande deve essere posta. Hanno legami con Washington nuovi o vecchi? Con chi sono associati? Inoltre, hanno avuto un sostegno di lunga data o no?


Ashur Shamis è uno dei membri fondatori del Fronte Nazionale per la Salvezza della Libia, che nel 1981 fu fondata nel Sudan. Era ricercato dall’Interpol e dalla polizia libica per anni. [7] Ahsur è anche indicato come il regista del National Endowment for Democracy nel Forum libico per lo sviluppo umano e politico. E’ anche il redattore della pagina web Akhbar, che è stato registrato come Akhbar Cultural Limited e collegato al NED. Ha inoltre partecipato a recenti conferenze chiave per il cambio di regime a Tripoli. Ciò includono la conferenza di Londra, tenuta dalla Chatham House nel 2011, che ha discusso i piani della NATO per l’invasione di Tripoli. [8]
Come Ashur, Aly Abuzaakouk è anch’egli membro del Fronte Nazionale per la Salvezza della Libia ed è legato al National Endowment for Democracy. E’ stato uno dei partecipanti chiave alla tavola rotonda tenuta per il Democracy Awards 2011 della NED. [9] Come Ashur, è ricercato dall’Interpol e opera come regista in occasione del Forum libico per lo sviluppo umano e politico. [10]
Vi è anche Noman Benotman, ex leader e fondatore del Gruppo combattente islamico libico (LIFG) e terrorista ricercato. È presentato come ex terrorista. Benotman ha convenientemente lasciato il Gruppo combattente islamico libico, a seguito degli attacchi dell’11 settembre 2001. Benotman non è solo un direttore del National Endowment for Democracy (NED) al Forum libico per lo sviluppo umano e politico, è anche legato alla rete al-Jazeera.


Non solo questi tre uomini vivevano senza problemi in Gran Bretagna, mentre erano ricercati dall’Interpol a causa del loro legame con il terrorismo o, nel caso di Abuzaakouk, per crimini legati alla droga e alla contraffazione, ma hanno anche ricevuto sovvenzioni dagli Stati Uniti. Hanno ricevuto borse dagli Stati Uniti, che ha formalizzato la loro appartenenza a diverse organizzazioni sponsorizzate dal NED, che hanno sostenuto l’ordine del giorno del cambio di regime in Libia. Questo ordine del giorno del cambio di regime è stato sostenuto anche da MI6 e CIA. Inoltre, i documenti legali che sono stati registrati dalla NED, per quanto riguarda questi individui, sono stati deliberatamente e illegalmente manomessi. L’identità di individui chiave è stata nascosta nella lista degli amministratori del NED. Così, documenti legali sono stati compilati in modo fraudolento per nascondere l’identità di un individuo con lo pseudonimo di “Beata Wozniak.” Perfino la data di nascita di Wozniak non è valida, apparendo come 1 gennaio, 1 (01/01/0001). E’ una persona che è stata membro del consiglio di tutte queste organizzazioni del NED. Viene indicata come regista e segretaria di Akbar, Transparency Libya Limited e diverse altre società britanniche.

La “Lunga Guerra” entra in Africa: la porta dell’Africa è stata aperta


L’avvento del terrorismo in Africa è parte di una deliberata strategia usata dagli Stati Uniti e dai loro alleati, tra cui la NATO. La strategia consiste nell’”aprire la porta del continente africano“, espandendo la cosiddetta “guerra globale al terrorismo.” Quest’ultimo fornisce una giustificazione all’obiettivo degli Stati Uniti di ampliare la propria presenza militare nel continente africano. E’ stata anche usata come pretesto per creare l’AFRICOM del Pentagono. L’US Africa Command (AFRICOM) è destinata a “gestire Africa” per conto di Washington. Consiste nel creare una versione africana della NATO, al fine di realizzare l’occupazione dell’Africa. A questo proposito, gli Stati Uniti e i loro alleati hanno già stabilito un budget per combattere le stesse organizzazioni terroristiche che hanno creato e sostenuto (anche con aiuti militari ed armi), attraverso la carta dell’Africa, dalla Somalia, Sudan, Libia, Mali a Mauritania, Niger, Algeria e Nigeria. I terroristi non solo combattono per gli USA sul terreno, ma tengono anche contatti con Washington ed agiscono come paravento attraverso le cosiddette organizzazioni per i diritti umani, che hanno il mandato di “promuovere la democrazia“. Sul terreno, questi stessi individui e organizzazioni sono utilizzati per destabilizzare i loro rispettivi paesi. Sono supportati anche a livello internazionale, da Washington, per lavorare attivamente al cambio di regime e all’intervento militare in nome dei diritti umani e della democrazia. La Libia ne è un chiaro esempio.

Mahdi Darius Nazemroaya è un  Sociologo e ricercatore associato al Centro per la Ricerca sulla Globalizzazione (CRG), di Montréal. E’ specializzato su Medio Oriente e Asia Centrale. E’ stato in Libia per oltre due mesi ed è stato anche un inviato speciale per Flashpoints, che è un programma di Berkeley, in California. Nazemroaya ha pubblicato questi articoli sulla Libia assieme ai colloqui con Cynthia McKinney trasmessi su Freedom Now, uno show trasmesso da KPFK, Los Angeles, California.

Julien Teil è un operatore video e documentarista investigativo  francese. E’ anche stato recentemente in Libia per circa un mese.

NOTE
[1] National Endowment for Democracy, “NED Strengths Democracy Ties with France,” 16 marzo 2010
[2] National Endowment for Democracy, “Africa Regional,” Agosto 2011
[3] United Nations Watch et al., “Urgent Appeal to Stop Atrocities in Libya: Sent by 70 NGOs to the US, EU, and UN,” 21 Febbraio 2011
[4] Ministry of European and Foreign Affairs (France), “XXIVème sommet Afrique-France,” Febbraio 2007
[5] Etienne de Durand, “Francs-tireurs et Centurions. Les ambiguïtés de l’héritage contre-insurrectionnel français,” Institut français des relations internationals, Marzo 2011
[6] The National Conference of the Libyan Opposition, “The National Accord: The National Conference of the Libyan Opposition, London, 26 giugno 2005“, 2005.
[7] Interpol Wanted Notice for Ashour Al-Shamis
[8] Foreign and Commonwealth Office (UK), “Chatam House event: the future of Libya”, Giugno 2011
[9] National Democracy for Democracy, “2011 Democracy Award Biographies”, Giugno 2011
[10] Interpol Wanted Notice for Ali Ramadan Abu Za Kouk

Traduzione di Alessandro Lattanzio – SitoAurora

André Rieu: Ramona

André Rieu: Ramona

00:05 Publié dans Musique | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : musique, andré rieu | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

The Sunic Journal: Jonathan Bowden

The Sunic Journal: Jonathan Bowden

dimanche, 16 octobre 2011

Entretien avec Bernard Lugan, rédacteur en chef de la revue "L'Afrique Réelle"

Entretien avec Bernard Lugan,

rédacteur en chef de la revue "L'Afrique Réelle"

The Sunic Journal Robert Steuckers on Europe vs. the Turks

The Sunic Journal

Robert Steuckers on Europe vs. the Turks

Identità umana e pregiudizio etnico ne «I viaggi di Gulliver» di Jonathan Swift

 

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Identità umana e pregiudizio etnico ne «I viaggi di Gulliver» di Jonathan Swift

 

di Francesco Lamendola

Fonte: Arianna Editrice [scheda fonte]

 

Da quando è apparso nelle librerie di Londra, nel 1726, il capolavoro di quella mente satirica e paradossale che fu Jonathan Swift (in una sua opera minore, la «Modesta proposta», del 1729, aveva suggerito, con la impassibile seriosità dell’economista, che i bambini poveri venissero utilizzati come cibo per i ricchi), ossia «Gulliver’s travels», esso non ha finito di dar luogo ad equivoci e fraintendimenti.
Basti dire che, per anni ed anni, di esso, o piuttosto di una sua edizione ridotta e “normalizzata”, si è voluto fare un classico per la gioventù; cosa ancora più amaramente paradossale di quel che avrebbe potuto immaginare il suo stesso autore, dato che tutto si può pensare de «I viaggi di Gulliver», tranne che sia un romanzo adatto ai bambini.
Se bastasse il fatto che il protagonista, a un certo punto, capita nel paese di Lilliput, dove tutto, a cominciare dagli abitanti, è quindici volte più piccolo che nel nostro mondo; oppure che, nella sua successiva avventura, egli finisce nel paese di Brobdingnag, ove il rapporto delle grandezze è rovesciato a sfavore dell’uomo, e lo stesso protagonista finisce rinchiuso in gabbia come un canarino, per il trastullo della gigantesca figlia del re; se bastassero tali aspetti puramente esteriori, allora vorrebbe dire che noi attribuiamo ben poca importanza a ciò che diamo da leggere ai bambini, oppure che non abbiamo capito nulla della terribile serietà di questo libro.
Che cos’è che non passa attraverso la macina della satira impietosa di Swift, misantropo inguaribile e scatenato pessimista? Non si salva nessuno: i suoi strali colpiscono con infallibile cattiveria i filosofi, gli storici, gli inventori (e questo in piena ideologia del progresso, in pieno secolo dei Lumi!); l’avidità e la brutalità degli Europei, protesi alla conquista degli altri continenti (e ciò nel Paese europeo che più di tutti si stava impegnando in questa sedicente “missione di civiltà”, la Gran Bretagna, dopo aver ridotto alla disperazione i vicini Irlandesi); la sete degli uomini di vivere eternamente; il primordiale istinto di sopraffazione proprio della natura umana, che viene significativamente contrapposto alla olimpica saggezza e all’esplicito disprezzo ad essa riservato dai nobili cavalli parlanti.
Dal punto di vista filosofico, «I viaggi di Gulliver» sono una vera e propria miniera di spunti per la riflessione, almeno quanto lo sono altri classici ammirati sotto il profilo letterario, ma, di solito, poco considerati in questa prospettiva, quali la «Divina Commedia» di Dante, il «Don Chisciotte della Mancia» di Cervantes e i «Promessi Sposi» di Manzoni.
Una miniera addirittura inesauribile: al punto che, se volessimo non già trattare, ma anche solo sfiorare, le principali tematiche filosofiche sottese al romanzo di Swift, avremmo la necessità di riempire parecchi volumi; qui, pertanto, vogliamo limitarci a toccare uno solo di tali aspetti, vale a dire quello riguardante il problema dell’identità e del pregiudizio etnico.
Formidabile accusatore dell’etnocentrismo, Swift insiste continuamente, lungo tutta la sua opera, sulla estrema difficoltà, anzi, sulla radicale impossibilità di superare i pregiudizi culturali della propria civiltà, nel momento in cui ci si trova alle prese con una civiltà diversa, i cui presupposti materiali e spirituali siano totalmente differenti dai nostri e anche da quelli che potremmo teoricamente concepire.
È ovvio che, così impostata la questione, la soluzione non può consistere nel generico e velleitario cosmopolitismo illuminista, benché tanto decantato da Voltaire e dagli altri “philosophes” francesi, a cominciare da Montesquieu: come si fa ad essere cittadini del mondo, infatti, se risulta per noi insormontabile la barriera culturale entro la quale siamo nati e cresciuti e dall’interno della quale tendiamo a giudicare, con arbitraria sicumera, altri modi di essere, di sentire e di pensare, del tutto diversi ai nostri?
Più sensato, semmai, appare un atteggiamento di scettica tolleranza, simile a quello già mostrato da Montaigne e del quale abbiamo già avuto, a suo tempo, occasione di occuparci (cfr. il nostro articolo «Michel de Montaigne e il cannibale felice», apparso sul sito di Arianna Editrice in data 13/12/2007).
Ha scritto Gianni Celati nel suo saggio introduttivo a «I viaggi di Gulliver» di Jonathan Swift (Feltrinelli, Milano, 2004, pp.  XV-XVI):

«Che si tratti di meschini lillipuziani o di magnanimi giganti o di cavalli virtuosi, le abitudini dei vari paesi  dipendono sempre da una fissazione su certi assiomi, definizioni nominali, dogmi o giudizi a priori; e sono una cecità che impedisce di vere oltre i limiti di una cultura, anche dove si tratta di cose osservabili a occhio nudo. Non solo nei comportamenti, ma anche nelle percezioni e nei pensieri intimi, la natura umana sembra ineluttabilmente dipendente da condizionamenti ambientali. Per cui il passaggio da un regime di abitudini all’altro corrisponde sempre a un lavaggio del cervello; e Gulliver non fa che subire lavaggi del cervello passando da un paese all’atro e adeguandosi a sempre nuove situazioni.
Se tutti i comportamenti e i pensieri dipendono così strettamente  da condizionamenti esterni, viene da chiedersi  dove ci porti questa lezione di relativismo radicale. Come si chiede Patrick Reilly:  “che ne è della vantata libertà della mente, l’inviolabile santuario dell’io”? Spesso è stato detto che Swift  porge un orecchio all’uomo perché si riconosca. Ma guardiamo Gulliver, che sembra un automa in balia della relatività , alieno in tutti i paesi dove capita e anche nella sua amata Inghilterra: se lui è l’uomo in cui specchiarsi, l’uomo è l’alieno del mondo, che appena fuori casa diventa  come Gulliver una specie di “freak” da baraccone, alla maniera dei selvaggi che erano esibiti per lo svago delle folle o dei potenti. Dal libro risulta che l’identità umana viene riconosciuta attraverso “leggi di Natura”; le quali però sono giudizi a priori, abitudini di pensiero per discriminare  l’indigeno dall’estraneo. Ad esempio, nella prima parte Gulliver si trova subito a essere classificato dai dotti lillipuziani come un uomo caduto dalla luna, in base a supposte “leggi di Natura”; e per gli stessi motivi i dotti di Brobdingnag lo classificano come un embrione abortivo, poi uno scherzo di natura; e i matematici lapuziani lo disprezzano perché non ha le loro stesse attitudini demenziali; infine i cavali lo espellono dalla Houyhnhnmland perché lo considerano una bestia irrazionale. Sempre le “leggi di natura” servono a definire la differenza  tra l’indigeno e l’estraneo, e hanno il risultato di esporre Gulliver a sanzioni, a condanne al rischio della vita, all’espulsione.
Inoltre va notato che la consistenza di questi giudizi a priori si fonda  soprattutto sulla boria dei sapienti, sui luoghi comuni della cultura, e in nessun altro libro  la scienza dei dotti viene così collegata alle forme universali dell’etnocentrismo. È questo che impedisce di riconoscere  nell’alieno Gulliver un’identità umana;, facendone appunto un “freak”, uno scherzo di natura: perché, nella scienza dei dotti, i valori differenziali diventano  modi del pregiudizio etnico che decide  l’identità dell’individuo; sicché i luoghi comuni  d’ogni cultura rappresentano i criteri ultimi  per distinguere gli individui umani al resto delle creature sensitive.
Questa  una lezione che Swift ha imparato da Montaigne, uno dei suoi grandi ispiratori;  e il «Gulliver»» sviluppa la visione di Montaigne sulla relatività delle opinioni e abitudini e di tutti i popoli. Una battuta nella quarta parte riassume il pensiero che attraversa il nostro libro: “dov’è mai un essere vivente non trascinato da preconcetti e parzialità per la sua terra natia?”: Bisognerebbe citare i tratti del pregiudizio etnico negli omiciattoli di Lilliput come nei cavali della Houyhnhnmland : pensare alle idee dei capi lillipuziani di macellare  o accecare il povero Gulliver, ricordare le proposte nell’assemblea dei cavalli  di castrare gli Yahoo. Che si tratti dell’untuosa crudeltà  dei lillipuziani, della crudeltà orientale  del re di Luggnagg, di quella olimpica dei cavalli, o di quella  degli europei impegnati in guerre e massacri coloniali, la cultura delle nazionalità sembra che debba sempre confermare  le proprie abitudini ricorrendo a sistemi di crudeltà.
Ogni cultura risulta un modo violento di marchiare gli altri, di segnare i limiti tra noi e l’estraneo.  Perché chi è fuori dai limiti d’una cultura, l’alieno, sembra appartenere alla natura brada come le bestie,  dunque dovrà essere domato, marchiato o castrato come le bestie. Questo mi sembra il succo delle disavventure di Gulliver, e fa venire un mente un celebre passo di Montaigne: “Noi non abbiamo altro punto  di riferimento per la verità e la ragione che l’esempio e l’idea degli usi e opinioni del nostro paese. […] Perciò gli altri diversi da noi sembrano selvaggi, allo stesso modo in cui chiamiamo selvatici i frutti  che la natura ha prodotto nel suo naturale sviluppo” (“Essais”, libro I, cap. XXXI).»

Abbiamo detto che la constatazione della irrimediabile limitatezza e dell’insuperabile condizionamento degli individui da parte della società fa sì che Swift propenda per una visione relativistica e scettica della condizione umana.
La sua satira, che assume talora i toni di un feroce sarcasmo, non sa o non vuole individuare una”pars costruens”  sulla quale far leva, in tanto pessimismo antropologico; egli è un formidabile distruttore, ma non si pone nemmeno il problema di come l’uomo possa tentare di uscire dal condizionamento cui sempre viene sottoposto, senza neppure rendersene conto.
Non si può dire che ne abbia l’obbligo: Swift non è un filosofo, ma uno scrittore; il fatto che abbia saputo vedere e criticare, dietro la vuota retorica del cosmopolitismo illuminista e del progresso illimitato, il vuoto presuntuoso di una cultura incapace anche solo di comprendere i limiti della sua stessa ideologia, sta a significare che il grande demistificatore era di parecchie lunghezze più avanti dei suoi contemporanei, senza però spingersi innanzi fino a raggiungere, o almeno a intravedere, un terreno solido su cui poggiare i piedi.
Proviamo, dunque, a riprendere il discorso là dove l’autore de «I viaggi di Gulliver» lo lascia in sospeso, e vediamo a quali conclusioni si possa arrivare.
Oggi che la globalizzazione sta rimescolando le culture, le riflessioni di Swift appaiono di particolare urgenza, perché è ovvio che una mescolanza culturale, realizzata in tempi brevissimi e con l’unico denominatore comune del profitto economico di pochi, non può che portare a incomprensioni, tensioni, conflitti.
Non ci sembra, però, che l’appartenenza a una determinata cultura debba connotarsi prevalentemente in senso negativo, come Swift sembra pensare: al contrario, l’identità culturale è un elemento essenziale al buon vivere, perché consente all’individuo di interagire positivamente con l’ambiente, di comprendere gli altri ed esserne compreso, di condividere con essi valori, strumenti di pensiero e sensibilità. Un individuo senza identità è come una pianta secca e senza radici; una cultura senza identità è, a sua volta, come un deserto pietrificato, dove ogni cosa diviene anonima e intercambiabile.
È chiaro che l’identità culturale, se si chiude su se stessa e degenera in esclusivismo intollerante, finisce per rendere un pessimo servizio all’individuo, espropriandolo della sua unicità e precludendogli la via di ogni possibile arricchimento spirituale; ma, fino a che questo non avviene e la società si limita ad offrire all’individuo dei saldi punti di riferimento e una rete di relazioni armoniose con l’altro, non solo non ne limita la creatività, ma gli offre un insostituibile punto d’appoggio, sul quale far leva e con il quale orientarsi.
Il problema è che, oggi, da un lato le culture tendono ad abdicare alla propria autonomia e a lasciarsi omologare in un generale appiattimento, ciò che produce un gravissimo impoverimento anche per il singolo individuo; dall’altro, tendono a svuotarsi dall’interno e a dimenticare le proprie radici, trasformandosi in quelle “società liquide” di cui parla Zygmunt Bauman, dominate dalla smania del cambiamento e caratterizzate dalla riduzione del cittadino a consumatore compulsivo di beni sempre più inutili, senza i quali, però, egli si sentirebbe povero ed escluso.
Il grande pericolo, perciò, al giorno d’oggi, non è tanto l’etnocentrismo, quanto l’anonimità e la degradazione delle culture, in nome di un “progresso” incontrollabile e di un tecnicismo esasperato che relegano sempre più l’individuo nel ruolo di semplice accessorio di un sistema efficiente, ma impersonale, dominato dalla sola dimensione economica.
E non ci sembra si possa dire che i pregiudizi dell’economia siano più accettabili di quelli di origine culturale: al fanatismo identitario si sostituisce il non meno temibile ricatto dello status economico-sociale.
Nel romanzo di Gulliver, “freak” è lo straniero in quanto diverso, ridotto a fenomeno da baraccone; nella società globalizzata contemporanea, ove imperano la tecnoscienza e le leggi del profitto, “freak” è colui che non può o non vuole consumare secondo le modalità totalitarie del consumismo imperante: chi, per esempio, si accontenta di essere fruitore di beni e servizi e non più di marchi, di firme, di simboli legati all’industria.
“Freak”, abnorme, è, oggi, colui che voglia essere se stesso e rifiutare le maschere dell’avere e dell’apparire: egli viene guardato con sospetto e disprezzo, proprio come i lillipuziani guardano Gulliver, così ingombrante nella sua diversità.
Ma tale diversità è un bene, non un male, sia per il singolo individuo, sia per la società intera.
Potrebbe una società permettersi di fare a meno di quel cinque per cento creativo, di quella piccola minoranza di persone che non si adeguano passivamente a tutte le mode e a tutti i pregiudizi, ma che coltivano in se stesse la preziosa, inestimabile pianticella dell’originalità, della consapevolezza, dell’apertura esistenziale?


Tante altre notizie su www.ariannaeditrice.it

samedi, 15 octobre 2011

Jacques Sapir: qu'est-ce que la mondialisation?

Jacques Sapir: qu'est-ce que la mondialisation?

Il progetto Eurasiatico, una minaccia al Nuovo Ordine Mondiale

 

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Il progetto Eurasiatico, una minaccia al Nuovo Ordine Mondiale

di Elena Ponomareva - 11/10/2011

Fonte: aurorasito.wordpress

Si potrebbe essere tentati di considerare il documento del premier russo Vladimir Putin, “Un nuovo progetto per l’integrazione del Eurasia: Il futuro in divenire“, che è stato pubblicato sulle Izvestia del 3 ottobre 2011, come un programma tracciato sommariamente da un concorrente delle elezioni presidenziali; ma dopo un controllo, sembra essere solo una parte di un quadro più ampio. L’articolo di opinione, ha momentaneamente acceso ampie polemiche in Russia e all’estero, ed ha evidenziato lo scontro di posizioni in corso sullo sviluppo globale…

 


Indipendentemente dalla interpretazione dei dettagli, la reazione dei media occidentali al progetto di integrazione presentato dal premier russo, è uniformemente negativo e riflette con estrema chiarezza una ostilità aprioristica verso la Russia e le iniziative che avanza. Mao Zedong, però, era solito dire che affrontare la pressione dei propri nemici è meglio che essere in una condizione in cui non si preoccupano di tenerti sotto pressione.
Aiuta a capire perché, al momento, i titoli in stile Guerra Fredda spuntano costantemente sui media occidentali e perché la recente presentazione dell’integrazione eurasiatica di Putin, è percepita dall’Occidente come una minaccia. La spiegazione più ovvia è che, se attuato, il piano diverrebbe  una sfida geopolitica al nuovo ordine mondiale, al dominio della NATO, del FMI, dell’Unione europea e degli altri organismi sovranazionali, e al primato palese degli Stati Uniti. Oggi, una sempre più assertiva Russia suggerisce, ed è pronta ad iniziare a costruire, un’ampia alleanza basata su principi che forniscono una valida alternativa al neoliberismo e all’atlantismo. E’ un segreto di pulcinella, che in questi giorni l’Occidente sta mettendo in pratica una serie di progetti geopolitici di vasta portata, per riconfigurare l’Europa sulla scia dei conflitti balcanici e, sullo sfondo della crisi provocata in Grecia e a Cipro, assemblare il Grande Medio Oriente sulla base di cambiamenti di regime in serie, in tutto il mondo arabo e, come progetto relativamente nuovo, la realizzazione del progetto per l’Asia, il cui recente disastro in Giappone, è stata una fase attiva.
Nel 2011, l’intensità delle dinamiche geopolitiche è senza precedenti dal crollo dell’Unione Sovietica e del blocco orientale, con tutti i principali paesi e organismi internazionali che vi contribuiscono. Inoltre, l’impressione attuale è che la forza militare, in qualche modo, sia diventata uno strumento legittimo nella politica internazionale. Solo pochi giorni fa, Mosca ha attirato una  valanga di critiche dopo aver posto il veto alla risoluzione del Consiglio di Sicurezza dell’ONU che potrebbe autorizzare la replica dello scenario libico in Siria. Come risultato, l’inviata permanente degli USA all’ONU, S. Rice, ha rimproverato la Russia e la Cina per il veto, mentre il ministro degli esteri francese, Alain Juppé, ha dichiarato che “è un giorno triste per il popolo siriano. E’ un giorno triste per il Consiglio di Sicurezza“. Durante l’acceso dibattito al Consiglio di sicurezza delle Nazioni Unite il 5 settembre, il rappresentante siriano ha redarguito Germania e Francia, ed ha accusato gli USA del genocidio perpetrato in Medio Oriente. Dopo di che, S. Rice ha accusato la Russia e la Cina di sperare di vendere armi al regime siriano, invece di stare dalla parte del popolo siriano, e ha abbandonato precipitosamente la riunione, e l’inviato francese Gérard Araud ha rilevato che “Nessun veto può cancellare la  responsabilità delle autorità siriane, che hanno perso qualsiasi legittimità uccidendo il proprio popolo“, lasciando l’impressione che uccidere i popoli, come in Jugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq e Libia, dovrebbe essere un privilegio della NATO.

 


I “partner” occidentali di Mosca si indignano quando la Russia, di concerto con la Cina, pone ostacoli sulla strada del nuovo ordine mondiale. La Siria, anche se un paese di notevole valenza regionale, giunge ad emergere nell’ordine del giorno solo fugacemente, ma l’ambizioso piano di Putin per l’intera Eurasia – “per raggiungere un più alto livello di integrazione – una Unione Euroasiatica” – avrebbe dovuto aspettarsi di evocare le preoccupazioni profonde e durature dell’Occidente. Mosca sfida apertamente il dominio globale da parte dell’Occidente “suggerendo un modello di una potente unione sovranazionale che può diventare uno dei poli del mondo di oggi, pur essendo un efficace collegamento tra l’Europa e la dinamica regione Asia-Pacifico“. Senza dubbio, il messaggio di Putin che “la combinazione di risorse naturali, di capitale e di forte potenziale umano, renderà l’Unione Euroasiatica competitiva nella gara industriale e tecnologico e nella corsa al denaro degli investitori, in nuovi posti di lavoro e negli impianti di produzione all’avanguardia” e che “insieme con altri protagonisti e istituzioni regionali come l’Unione Europea, USA, Cina e l’APEC, garantirà la sostenibilità dello sviluppo globale“, sembra allarmante per i leader occidentali.

 


Né il crollo dell’URSS e del mondo bipolare, né la conseguente proliferazione di “democrazie” filo-occidentali, ha segnato un punto finale nella lotta per il primato mondiale. Ciò che seguì fu un periodo di interventi militari e rovesciamenti di regimi sfidanti, con l’ausilio della guerra dell’informazione e l’onnipresente soft power occidentale. In questo gioco, l’Eurasia rimane il primo premio in linea con l’imperativo geopolitico di John Mackinder, per cui “Chi governa l’Est Europa comanda l’Heartland, chi governa l’Heartland comanda l’Isola-Mondo, chi governa l’Isola-Mondo controlla il mondo“.
Alla fine del XX secolo gli USA sono diventati il primo paese non eurasiatico a combinare i ruoli di potenza più importante del mondo e di arbitro finale negli affari eurasiatici. Nel quadro della dottrina del nuovo ordine mondiale, gli Stati Uniti e l’Occidente nel suo complesso, vedono l’Eurasia come una zona di importanza fondamentale per il loro sviluppo economico e crescente potere politico. Il dominio globale è un obiettivo dichiarato apertamente e costantemente perseguito della comunità euro-atlantica e dalle sue istituzioni militari e finanziarie – la NATO, il FMI e la Banca Mondiale – insieme con i media occidentali e le innumerevoli ONG. Nel processo, l’establishment occidentale rimane pienamente consapevole del fatto che, nelle parole Z. Brzezinski, il “primato globale dell’America è direttamente dipendente da quanto tempo e quanto efficacemente la sua preponderanza sul continente eurasiatico è sostenuta“. Sostenere la “preponderanza“, a sua volta, significa assumere il controllo di Europa, Russia, Cina, Medio Oriente e Asia Centrale.
L’aperta egemonia occidentale in Europa, Asia centrale e, quindi, in Medio Oriente e anche in Russia, conta quale risultato indiscutibile degli ultimi due decenni, ma al momento la situazione appare fluida. Gli osservatori occidentali, cinesi e russi prevedono un fallimento imminente del modello di globalizzazione neoliberista integrata nel nuovo ordine mondiale, ed è in arrivo il tempo, per la classe politica, di adottare una visione.

 


Aprendo nuove opportunità per proteggere gli originali modelli di sviluppo nazionali dalla pressione atlantista, e per mantenere una reale sicurezza internazionale, il nuovo progetto di integrazione di Putin mantiene una promessa importante, per la Russia e i suoi alleati, e presenta quindi ai nemici della Russia un problema serio. Né la Russia, né alcun altra repubblica post-post-sovietica può sopravvivere nel mondo di oggi da sola, e la Russia come attore chiave geopolitico dell’Eurasia, con una potenzialità economica, politica e militare senza precedenti in tutto lo spazio post-sovietico, può e deve, giocare l’offerta di una architettura mondiale alternativa.


L’allergia dell’Occidente al piano di Putin è dunque spiegabile, ma, a prescindere dalla opposizione che il progetto può incontrare, la debolezza di alcuni dei suoi elementi, e la potenziale difficoltà nel metterlo in pratica, il progetto di integrazione eurasiatica nasce dalla vita nello spazio geopolitico e culturale post-sovietico ed è affine alle attuali tendenze globali. Sopravvivere, conservando le basi economiche e materiali dell’esistenza nazionale, mantenendo vive le tradizioni e costruendo un futuro sicuro per i figli, sono gli obiettivi che le nazioni eurasiatiche possono realizzare solo se rimangono allineate con la Russia. In caso contrario, l’isolamento, le sanzioni e gli interventi militari le attendono…
 
E’ gradita la ripubblicazione con riferimento alla rivista on-line della Fondazione per la Cultura Strategica.
 
Traduzione di Alessandro Lattanzio -  SitoAurora


Tante altre notizie su www.ariannaeditrice.it

Céline, un génie des lettres, un enfant et un fou

 
Céline, un génie des lettres, un enfant et un fou
 
 
 
Par Amaury Watremez. A propos de la sortie en Folio d’une partie de la correspondance de Céline, les Lettres à la NRF, passionnantes.

Les Lettres à la NRF de Céline sont au fond comme un journal littéraire de ce dernier, et dans les considérations de ces deux misanthropes on perçoit des remarques qui se rejoignent très souvent sur eux, sur leur entourage, leur œuvre, le reste de l’humanité.

Ce que dit Céline dans sa correspondance sur la littérature, il le mettra en forme plus clairement encore dans les Entretiens avec le professeur Y en particulier. Céline écrit tout du long de sa vie littéraire qui se confond avec sa vie tout court car la littérature, n’en déplaise aux petits marquis réalistes, est un enjeu existentiel. Il écrit des lettres pleines de verve, parfois grossières, à la limite du trivial. Il y explique, en développant sur plusieurs courriers sa conception de l’écriture, basée sur le style. Il se moque de l’importance de l’histoire par l’écrivain (« des histoires, y’en a plein les journaux »), se moque des modes littéraires, n’est pas tendre avec ses amis, dont Marcel Aymé, dont il suggère l’édition sur papier toilettes ainsi que l’œuvre de Jean Genet, comme un gosse jaloux du succès de ses pairs, qui entend conserver toute l’attention sur lui.

Car il cultive les paradoxes, il est misanthrope mais a soif de gloire et de la reconnaissance la plus large possible des lecteurs.

Ses correspondants ne sont pas sans talent, ainsi Gaston Gallimard, son éditeur : on s’étonne encore du flair remarquable de celui-ci en matière d’édition, on chercherait vainement son équivalent de nos jours où domine à des rares exceptions le clientélisme, l’obséquiosité, le copinage entre « beaux messieurs coquins et belles dames catins » pour reprendre le terme de Maupassant dans sa correspondance. Ce qui montre d’ailleurs que ce copinage ne date pas d’hier, ce qui n’est pas une excuse vu les sommets himalayens qu’il atteint en ce moment dans les milieux littéraires en particulier, culturels, ou plutôt « cultureux » en général.

Céline comme Léautaud est un misanthrope littéraire exemplaire, ce que sont finalement la plupart des littérateurs de toute manière, qui se libèrent des blessures subies par eux à cause de l’humanité en écrivant, en ouvrant un passage vers des univers mentaux et imaginaires inexplorées. Mais l’écriture n’est pas qu’une catharsis, contrairement à ce que les auteurs d’auto-fiction voudraient nous laisser croire, eux qui font une analyse en noircissant des pages qui ont pour thème central l’importance de leur nombril.

La misanthropie en littérature est un thème couru, maintes fois traité et repris, souvent lié à la pose de l’auteur se présentant en dandy, en inadapté, en poète maudit incompris de tous.

C’est un sujet d’écriture au demeurant très galvaudé.

Parfois, l’auteur qui prend cette posture a les moyens de ses prétentions, de ses ambitions, et d’ailleurs la postérité a retenu son nom à juste titre, pour d’autres, c’est souvent assez ridicule voire grotesque. Les artistes incompris de pacotille, les rebelles de ce type sont des fauves de salon comparés aux écrivains qui refusent les mondanités, les dorures, et l’ordure. Ces fauves de salon ne sont pas méchants, ils sont émouvants à force d’évoquer Rimbaud ou Baudelaire pour tout et n’importe quoi, de manière aussi désordonné que l’adolescent post-pubère clame sa détestation de la famille pour mieux y coconner, et continuer à se vautrer ensuite dans un mode de vie bourgeois. Et après tout, Claudel qui se réclamait de Rimbaud, et qui était un grand bourgeois conservateur, était aussi un grand écrivain, les fauves de salon peuvent donc avoir encore quelque espoir que leur démarche ne soit pas totalement vaine.

C’est encore mieux quand le prétendu inadapté rebelle, artiste et créateur, est jeune, et vendu comme génie précoce pour faire vendre (ne surtout pas oublier la coiffure de « rebelle » avec mèche ou frange « ad hoc »).

Cette rentrée littéraire, on nous refait le coup avec Marien Defalvard dont le livre s’avère certes plutôt bien écrit, et certainement réécrit, mais sans personnalité, sans saveur, sans couleur, sans odeur.

Les personnages misanthropes les plus connus sont le capitaine Némo et Alceste, les plus intéressants, les plus remarquables aussi. Louis-Ferdinand Destouches alias Céline, semble être eux aussi de véritable misanthrope, détester ses semblables.

Au final, on songe plutôt à son encontre au mot de Jean Paulhan répondant à une lettre d’injures de Céline, ces misanthropes, ce sont à la fois des enfants, des fous, mais aussi des hommes de talent, des génies avides de gloire. Ils ont des blessures diverses, surtout à cause du monde, dont ils ressentent la sottise et la cruauté plus fortement que les autres. Ce sont finalement des blessures d’amour, en particulier pour Léautaud, mais aussi pour Céline, qui feint de haïr ses semblables mais qui veut à tout prix ou presque leur reconnaissance.

Céline fût fidèle à Lucette, toujours discrète, toujours présente, consolatrice, fluette et solide, qui avait son atelier de danse au-dessus du cabinet de l’écrivain à Drancy, l’exception peut-être de quelques « professionnelles » de Bastoche, ce qu’évoque Claude Dubois dans son ouvrage sur La Bastoche : Une histoire du Paris populaire et criminel dont l’auteur de ses lignes a déjà parlé sur Agoravox.fr. Derrière les pétarades de l’auteur du Voyage on distingue aussi un grand pudique goûtant la présence discrète de sa femme attentionnée.

Ces deux auteurs comme beaucoup de natures très sensibles sont dans l’incapacité au compromis sentimental, amical, à l’amour mesuré, raisonnable, sage, et finalement un rien étriqué. Il est difficile de leur demander de rentrer dans un cadre ce dont ils sont incapables.

Sur ce point là, Céline est aussi un enfant comme Léautaud, on sent dans ses amitiés, à travers ses lettres à Roger Nimier, Denoèl ou Gaston Gallimard, cette recherche de la perfection et d’une amitié sans réelle réciprocité où c’est l’ami qui couve, qui prend les coups, les responsabilités à la place, et à qui l’on peut reprocher la brutalité et la sottise du monde extérieur, du monde des adultes où ils ne sont jamais au fond rentrés en demeurant des spectateurs dégoûtés par ce qu’ils y voient.

Sa misanthropie est aussi sa faiblesse, mais comme du charbon naissent parfois quelques diamants, de celle-ci naît le génie particulier de son œuvre littéraire. Cette hyper-émotivité du style que l’on trouve surtout chez Céline, ce chuchotement fébrile et passionné.

Amaury WATREMEZ
Agorafox.fr, 26/09/2011.

> Mes terres saintes, le blog d'Amaury Watremez.

The Identity Idea

Florasgr.jpg

The Identity Idea

A Report from Sweden

 
 

The third installment of Identitär Idé (Identitarian Idea) took place in Stockholm, Sweden on August 27, 2011. Although attendance was down slightly from our last event, the pleasant atmosphere more than made up for it. Visitors started gathering at noon, and when the doors swung open at one o'clock, everything got underway immediately. The walls of the venue were covered in Soviet-style “artwork” romanticizing labour and socialism, meaning that the venue must have been affiliated with the Swedish Social Democratic Party, which lent the afternoon a surreal backdrop. More than one visitor found this amusing, and a reminder of the strange character of Sweden—a country more or less ruled by a Leftist radicalism that most Americans would only encounter in an academic setting.

In addition to the lectures that had been announced in advance, several cultural activists were also in attendance. Arktos sold books (and, apparently, a lot of them), a recently established T-shirt company called Dixerwear showcased a number of their designs, and the well-known Swedish nationalist weekly Nationell Idag distributed free back issues and subscription information. The artist Marcus Andersson also exhibited some of his paintings—very impressive works of a kind virtually extinct in the contemporary “art” world.

After a short introductory speech, the first lecture began. Swedish dissident author and expat Lars Holger Holm discussed the history and present state of modernism and postmodernism, primarily in art. Holm contended that modernism had gone from a movement which, despite perhaps being destructive, was at least dynamic and creative, especially when compared to the sterile conformism and stagnant repetition of meaningless provocations and forms as we see in postmodernism. He goes on to describe the ongoing dumbing-down of art known as “modern” and the impossibility of any kind of democracy within the domain of art, illustrating his speech with examples known to the attentive crowd who, at the end, burst into applause.

Dr. Alexander Jacob was next, discussing the religious and political views of Richard Wagner. Wagner, he maintained, believed in a specifically Aryan form of Christianity, which emerged as a result of its spread to Europe, as opposed to the forms of religion which go by that name in the modern world, which he believes have returned it to its Judaic roots and resulted in a universalist creed which fosters usury and racial degeneration. He explains how Wagner saw the solution to this problem in the re-emergence of a specifically Germanic form of Christianity, which would reinvigorate the belief in love and union with Nature. At its conclusion, some controversy erupted when it was suggested that Wagner had been merely Nietzsche in cheap clothes. Dr. Jacob replied that Nietzsche was a "completely unoriginal philosopher" who had actually stolen ideas from Wagner, and whose basic notions were simple inversions of Wagner's developed to justify his own endeavours. Mr. Holm protested, and a contentious—though brief and entertaining—discussion ensued. After his presentation, it was certain that a good part of the crowd will delve deeper into the subject on their own.

Following a break, Dr. Tomislav Sunic took the podium. As Dr. Sunic himself said, he has become a sort of household name in the Scandinavian New Right scene, having visited Sweden on several occasions this year alone. As always, Dr. Sunic covered a wide range of topics. One of the most interesting aspects of his speech concerned the double-edged nature of nationalism, which is comprised of both love and hate. Being from Croatia, and having lived through the war, Dr. Sunic is more qualified than most to discuss such a topic. He also discussed not only the consequences but, more importantly, the causes of the immigration invasion into European countries as well as those countries with European roots. It was the occasion for the ex-diplomat to remind us of the role which is played by the globalised hyper-class, as well as by the charity leagues that, for economic reasons or clientélisme religieux, encourage immigration. Tom finished the discourse with a reminder that citizenship, as well as borders, can easily change, a matter of which he is well-versed as a Croatian. He went on to reason that a people’s identity is built upon a foundation that is indifferent to borders and regime changes—race. Being an ethno-differentalist rather than a racial supremacist, however, Tom concluded that race is not the alpha and omega of identity.

When Dr. Sunic had finished and taken a few questions from the audience, it was time for the dinner break. This gave us the opportunity to relax and socialize before the main portion of the event. This was, of course, the Australian Professor Andrew Fraser's first Scandinavian appearance, which began about a half-hour behind schedule (which, considering how events like this typically go, must be seen as a triumph!).

Professor Fraser's many years of working in an academic environment were very much apparent as he presented the main themes of his latest book, The WASP Question, which was recently published by Arktos. The historical, biological and juridical characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon peoples were recounted as Prof. Fraser discussed why and how the British Protestants, who once conquered the world and settled in many regions, have now lost any sense of identity and become unable to defend their own interests in the face of strengthening ethnic consciousness among minorities in their own lands. The “WASP,” according to the Australian author, is the invisible race within the lobbies and civic patriotism of the nations they inhabit.

Professor Fraser reminds us of what Guillaume Faye has tried on several occasions to explain to those who hold an anti-American bias: that the space now known as the United States wasn't born as a rainbow coalition, but was rather founded by a homogeneous ethnic community that has since absorbed newcomers and their descendants from every European nation. The topic might appear to fanatical opponents of everything “American” as irrelevant, but Fraser explained that the Europeans have also developed a general European identity, just as their cousins across the pond have done—an invisible race. He concluded his talk by insisting on the importance of the myth—a concept necessary for the survival of any people who wishes to preserve their identity.

The rest of the evening was less serious and more about socializing and entertainment, as neofolk act Winglord performed some of their songs onstage. While the music appears to have mainly consisted of playback, the massive video projection that accompanied the concert created an interesting and absorbing experience. Later in the evening, Dr. Jacob returned to the subject of Wagner, though now in a musical form as he alternated between brief, spoken explanations of the main story line of Der Ring des Niebelungen and performances of piano transcriptions of selected parts of the opera tetralogy.

Throughout the day, those in attendance had ample opportunity to meet each other and exchange ideas and observations. Everyone involved seems to have been very satisfied with the event, and this writer is no exception. Events were kept to the schedule, all the lectures were interesting, and the general atmosphere was quite pleasant, indeed. The fact that the last of the people to leave did not do so until midnight should speak for it self.

Tacitus’ Germania

Tacitus’ Germania

By Andrew Hamilton

Ex: http://www.counter-currents.com/

Tacitus’ Germania, a short monograph on German ethnography written c. 98 AD, is of great historical significance. The transmission of the text to the present day, and certain adventures and tensions surrounding it, make for an interesting story.

Roman historian and aristocrat Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55–c. 117 AD) was the author of several works, more than half of which have been lost. What remains of his writings are divided into the so-called “major [long] works,” the Histories [2] and the Annals [2], jointly covering the period 14–96 AD, and the “minor [short] works”: The Dialogue on Orators, Agricola, [3]and [3] Germania [3]. Tacitus, a senator, is believed to have held the offices of quaestor in 79, praetor in 88, consul in 97, and proconsul or governor of the Roman provinces in “Asia” (western Turkey), from 112–13.

The Germania is a short work, not really a “book.” My copy, “Germany and Its Tribes,” is a mere 23 pages long—albeit in moderately small wartime print on thin paper containing no notes, annotations, maps, illustrations, or other editorial aids. It was translated from the Latin by Alfred Church and William Brodribb in 1876 and published in The Complete Work of Tacitus by Random House’s Modern Library in 1942.

The Agricola, about Roman Britain, is roughly the same length. Agricola, the general primarily responsible for the Roman conquest of Britain and governor of Britannia from 77–85 AD, was Tacitus’ father-in-law.

The Germania has been the most influential source for the early Germanic peoples since the Renaissance. Its reliable account of their ethnography, culture, institutions, and geography is the most thorough that has survived from ancient times, and to this day remains the preeminent classical text on the subject. The book signifies the emergence of the northern Europeans from the obscurity of archaeology, philology, and prehistory into the light of history half a millennium after the emergence of the southern Europeans in Homer and Herodotus.

Though Tacitus at times writes critically of the Germans, he also stresses their simplicity, bravery, honor, fidelity, and other virtues in contrast to corrupt Roman imperial society, fallen from the vigor of the Republic. (It has been said that no one in Tacitus is good except Agricola and the Germans.)

Tacitus’ book is based upon contemporaneous oral and written accounts. During the period knowledge of northern Europe increased rapidly. Roman commanders produced unpublished memoirs of their campaigns along the lines of Caesar’s Commentaries, which circulated in Roman literary circles. Diplomatic exchanges between Rome and Germanic tribes brought German leaders to Rome and Roman emissaries to barbarian courts. And Roman traders expanded traffic with the barbarians, generating, perhaps, more knowledge than the military men.

According to Jewish classicist Moses Hadas, Tacitus “never consciously sacrifices historical truth. He consulted good sources, memoirs, biographies, and official records, and he frequently implies that he had more than one source before him. He requested information of those in a position to know” and “exercises critical judgment.”

Other Ancient Accounts of the Germans

Prior to Tacitus’ narrative, a Syrian-born Hellenistic Greek polymath of the first century BC, Poseidonius, may have been the first to distinguish clearly between the Germans and the Celts, but only fragments of his writings survive.

Julius Caesar did not penetrate very far east of the Rhine, so his knowledge of the Germans, expressed in De Bello Gallico (On the Gallic War, c. 50 BC), was limited.

The Roman Pliny the Elder’s Bella Germaniae (German Wars, c. 60s–70s AD) probably contained the fullest account of the people up to Tacitus’ time, but it has been lost.

Pliny, the foremost authority on science in ancient Europe, had served in the army in Germany. When Mount Vesuvius destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii, he was stationed near present-day Naples, in command of the western Roman fleet. Eager to study the volcano’s destructive effects firsthand, he sailed across the bay, where he was suffocated by vapors caused by the eruption.

Following the Germania, the most important ancient work discussing northern Europe was Ptolemy’s Geography, written in the 2nd century AD. Ptolemy is the Alexandrian astronomer best-known for positing the Ptolemaic System. The Geography named 69 tribes and 95 places, many mentioned by no other source, as well as major rivers and other natural features.

From late antiquity, no extensive study of the Germanic peoples has survived, if one was ever written, and no single writer treated the migrations in a coherent way.

Loss and Rediscovery

At some point during the collapse of classical civilization and the migrations of late antiquity the text of the Germania was lost for more than a thousand years. It resurfaced only briefly, in Fulda, Germany in the 860s, where it and the other short works were probably copied. A monk at Fulda quoted from it verbatim at the time. Subsequently it was lost again.

In 1425 rumors reached Italy that manuscripts of Tacitus survived in the library of Hersfeld Abbey near Fulda. One of these contained the shorter works. In 1451 or 1455 (sources differ) an emissary of Pope Nicholas V obtained the manuscript containing the lesser works and brought it to Rome. It is known as the Codex Hersfeldensis.

In Rome, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, examined and analyzed the Germania, sparking interest in the work among German humanists, including Conrad Celtes, Johannes Aventinus, and Ulrich von Hutten.

Its first publication in central Europe occurred at Nuremberg in 1473–74; the first commentary on the text was written by Renaissance humanist Beatus Rhenanus in 1519.

[4]

The first page of Germania, the Codex Aesinas

The Codex Hersfeldensis was then lost again for half a millennium. (This time, of course, the content survived in published form.) Then, in 1902, a portion of the Codex Hersfeldensis was rediscovered by priest-philologist Cesare Annibaldi in the possession of Italian Count Aurelio Balleani of Iesi (Italian: Jesi), a town located in the Marches of central Italy. The manuscript had been in the family’s possession since 1457. This single text, the oldest extant version, became known as the Codex Aesinas. (I.e., the Aesinas is believed to consist of portions of the lost manuscript from Hersfeld.

One scholar has summarized the tremendous impact the text’s rediscovery in 1455 has had on European history:

The rediscovery of the Germania in the late fifteenth century was a decisive event in the study of the ancient Germanic peoples. Renaissance scholarship endowed Roman literary texts with outstanding authority, as well as making them more widely available. At the same time, a rise in German national feeling led to heightened interest in ancient texts which illuminated the Germanic past. . . . The Germania . . . was used to cement a link between the Germans of Tacitus and the Germans of the early modern period. From about 1500 onward the Germania was rarely far from serious discussion of German national identity, German history and even German religion. Fresh impetus was given to it in the nineteenth century and, of course, the racial purity, valour and integrity of the Germans as portrayed by Tacitus had immense appeal to the National Socialist hierarchy in the 1920s and 1930s. (Malcolm Todd, The Early Germans, 2d ed., Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, p. 7)

Among others, the Germania influenced Frederick the Great, Johann Fichte, Johann Gottfried von Herder [5], and Jakob Grimm.

Key to the rediscovery, preservation, transmission, and social and racial influence of the Germania over the past 500 years have been Renaissance humanism, modern (pre-21st century) scholarship, the invention of printing, liberalism, nationalism, and racial science.

A Dangerous Book

Since the Renaissance, the Germania has provided the most significant historical evidence of the early Germanic peoples.

The inevitable identification of the ancient Germans with their descendants commenced soon after the book’s discovery. Historians, philologists, and archaeologists all added pieces to the mosaic, so that by the time unification occurred in 1871 the early history of the Germans was firmly grounded.

The Germania influenced at least one 20th century leader decisively. Young Heinrich Himmler in September 1924 read Tacitus during a train ride and was captivated. At the time he was personal assistant to Gregor Strasser, leader of the National Socialist Freedom Movement (Nationalsozialistische Freiheitsbewegung).

In contemporaneous notes, Himmler wrote that Tacitus captured “the glorious image of the loftiness, purity, and nobleness of our ancestors,” adding, “Thus shall we be again, or at least some among us.”

In 1936, the year of the Berlin Olympics, Hitler personally requested of Mussolini that possession of the Codex Aesinas be transferred to Germany. Mussolini agreed, but changed his mind when the proposition turned out to be unpopular among his people.

A facsimile copy was made for the Germans and Rudolph Till, chairman of the Department of Classical Philology and Historical Studies at the University of Munich, and a member of the Ahnenerbe (a racial think tank co-founded by Heinrich Himmler in 1935), studied the manuscript in Rome in the months prior to the war. The Ahnenerbe published Till’s findings as Palaeographical Studies of Tacitus’s Agricola and Germania Along with a Photocopy of the Codex Aesinas in 1943.

German ideologist Alfred Rosenberg [6] and SS chief Heinrich Himmler both retained intense interest in the Codex. Mussolini’s government fell in 1943. In July 1944 Himmler dispatched an SS commando team to rescue the manuscript. The unit searched three Balleani family residences in Italy without success.

The Codex was in fact stored in a wooden trunk bound with tin in the kitchen cellar of one of the residences, the Palazzo on the Piazza in Jesi. (There is a 1998 online newspaper account in German [7] about this affair that relies upon Jewish writer Simon Schama’s 1996 Landscape and Memory for its authority.)

[8]

Palazzo Balleani in Jesi

The upshot was that possession of the manuscript remained in the hands of the Baldeschi-Balleani [9] family. After the war the family stored the Codex Aesinas in a safe deposit box in the basement of the Banco di Sicilia in Florence, Italy. In November 1966, the River Arno experienced its worst flooding [10] since the 1550s, causing damage to the Codex. Monks at a monastery near Rome skilled in preserving manuscripts succeeded in saving it, though permanent water damage could not be eliminated.

The Codex was sold by the family to the Biblioteca Nazionale in Rome in 1994, where it is currently cataloged as the Codex Vittorio Emanuele 1631.

Suppress That Classic!

Since WWII, as ideological imperatives took precedence over dispassionate scholarship, the Germania‘s capacity to instill self-awareness and collective identity has deeply disturbed proponents of anti-white policies and ideologies. The historical record is problematic, too, in not depicting the Germans as irredeemably evil, possibly scheming, say, to vaporize the extensive Jewish populations of Rome and Persia in clay kilns.

One feint such ideologues employ is to insinuate that ancient Germans and modern northern Europeans possess no biological or historical kinship. Though nonsensical, it is as easy to argue as is the assertion that biological race does not exist, or dozens of other counter-factual dogmas.

But many would no doubt prefer to ban the book Communist-style, removing all copies from circulation and restricting access to unpulped copies to a handful of approved “scholars” on a carefully monitored basis.

As long ago as 1954 Jewish historian Arnaldo Momigliano declared before “an important international classical conference” that the Germania was one of the most dangerous books ever written. (In 1938 Momigliano lost his job as professor of Roman history at the University of Turin after passage of the Fascist racial law. He moved to England, where he taught for the rest of his life.)

Today, Harvard University’s Christopher Krebs, author of A Most Dangerous Book: Tacitus’s Germania From the Roman Empire to the Third Reich (2011), trumpets Momigliano’s view [11] of the ancient text’s “insidious” nature to the applause of academic peers, literary critics, and journalists.

Krebs’ insincere declaration—gambit, really—that “Tacitus did not write a most dangerous book, his readers made it so,” doesn’t fool anyone. In societies committed to the proposition that speech and ideas constitute “hate,” there is unanimous, or at least undissenting, agreement on how to treat “dangerous” books and ideas.

In an interview, Krebs says that he is half German and half Swedish. But “Krebs” can be a Jewish name—e.g., biochemist Hans Krebs, formulator of the Krebs cycle. Scanning random passages from the book, it is hard to think that the author is not Jewish or part Jewish. If white, he has mastered their psychology to great profit.

Adam Kirsch, a Jewish book reviewer for Slate, the Washington Post-owned online magazine, quotes Krebs approvingly: “‘Ideas are viruses. They depend on minds as their hosts . . . The Germania virus . . . after 350 years of incubation . . . progressed to a systemic infection culminating in the major crisis of the twentieth century.’” (Yes, he means the “Holocaust.”) The title of Kirsch’s article is “Ideas Are Viruses [12].”

This is a characteristically Jewish, and totalitarian, way of thinking.

[13]

Adam Kirsch

Kirsch, a child of privilege, is the son of author, attorney, and newspaper columnist Jonathan Kirsch. A 1997 graduate of Harvard, Adam Kirsch writes regularly for Slate, The New Yorker, The Times Literary Supplement, and other magazines.

Wishing that the Germania had been lost during the Middle Ages, Kirsch concludes, “If the last surviving manuscript had been eaten by rats in a monk’s library a thousand years ago, the world might have been better off.”

Ah, liberal enlightenment! The world can never get enough of it.

 


Article printed from Counter-Currents Publishing: http://www.counter-currents.com

URL to article: http://www.counter-currents.com/2011/09/tacitus-germania/

vendredi, 14 octobre 2011

L’industrie militaire US derrière la «défense intelligente» de l’Otan

L’industrie militaire US derrière la «défense intelligente» de l’Otan

Ex: http://fortune.fdesouche.com/

Derrière le concept de « défense intelligente » de l’Otan, on trouve les intérêts du complexe militaro-industriel américain, estime l’ambassadeur de Russie auprès de l’Alliance, Dmitri Rogozine.

La vache sacrée du complexe militaro-industriel à 1.000 milliards de dollars par an, au milieu de la pièce. "D'autres possibilités de réductions budgétaires ?" (caricature américaine)

« Derrière l’idée de mettre en place une ‘défense intelligente’, examinée la veille lors d’une réunion des ministres de la Défense de l’Otan, on trouve sans doute les ambitions du complexe militaro-industriel des Etats-Unis », a-t-il déclaré vendredi à RIA Novosti.

 

Réunis les 5 et 6 octobre à Bruxelles, les ministres de la Défense des 28 pays de l’Otan ont approuvé l’initiative de « défense intelligente » proposée par le secrétaire général de l’Alliance, Anders Fogh Rasmussen. Selon ce dernier, il s’agit d’améliorer le niveau militaire et technique de l’Alliance, tout en réduisant les ressources nécessaires à cet effet.

D’après l’ambassadeur russe, l’initiative de M. Rasmussen vise à « répartir les responsabilités » parmi les alliés européens de façon à « créer une grande armée atlantique placée sous le commandement de l’état-major militaire l’Otan ».

Dans ce cas, certains pays de l’Alliance seraient contraints de renoncer à leur armée nationale composée de différents types d’unités « pour accepter la spécialisation qui leur sera imposée par le commandement central », estime M. Rogozine. Cela signifie que les uns ne développeront que la flotte de surface, d’autres la flotte sous-marine, d’autres encore les troupes de débarquement, d’autres enfin les troupes aérospatiales.

« Si un pays forme seul ses forces armées, il est libre d’acheter des armes là où il veut, mais s’il intègre le système de ‘défense intelligente’, dont les paramètres seront définis par l’état-major de l’Otan, les achats d’armes seront décidés par Washington », a indiqué le diplomate.

RIA Novosti

Le Bulletin célinien n°334 - octobre 2011

Le bulletin célinien n°334 - octobre 2011

Vient de paraître : Le Bulletin célinien n°334.

Au sommaire :

Marc Laudelout : Bloc-notes
M. L. : In memoriam Paul Yonnet (1948-2011)
Nos amis écrivent…
M. L. : Henri Guillemin, admirateur de Céline
Henri Guillemin : « Drôle de Céline ! » [1938]
Robert Le Blanc : Céline et Mahé
Pierre de Bonneville : Villon et Céline [3]
Frédéric Saenen : Céline sans contredit
François Marchetti : In memoriam Johannes C. Johansen

Un numéro de 24 pages, 6 € franco.

Le Bulletin célinien, B. P. 70, Gare centrale, BE 1000 Bruxelles.

 
 
Le Bloc-notes de Marc Laudelout
 
Il y a quelques années, un célinien connu évoquait dans une émission radiophonique « la foi du charbonnier » de Céline. C’était interpréter abusivement une lettre au Pasteur Löchen auquel l’écrivain n’avait pas voulu faire mauvaise figure en avouant tout uniment son athéisme résolu.
Si Céline n’était pas croyant, il était surtout très hostile à l’Église catholique. La manifestation la plus éclatante figure dans Les Beaux draps : « La religion catholique fut à travers toute notre histoire, la grande proxénète, la grande métisseuse des races nobles, la grande procureuse aux pourris (avec tous les saints sacrements), l’enragée contaminatrice ». Et de déplorer que « l’aryen n’a jamais su aimer, aduler que le dieu des autres, jamais eu de religion propre, de religion blanche ». C’est aussi l’époque où il reproche vivement à la presse doriotiste d’avoir censuré une lettre qu’il adressa au chef du PPF, le passage caviardé visant précisément « l’Église, notre grande métisseuse, la maquerelle criminelle en chef, l’anti-raciste par excellence ».
Ces attaques virulentes datent de la période noire. Peu de temps avant, Charles Lacotte lui avait adressé son roman, Nicias le Pythagoricien (sous-titré « Comment les Juifs font sauter les empires »), avec cette dédicace bien sentie : « À l’effrayant Louis-Ferdinand Céline, homme d’effroyable vérité » (1). Un bilan exhaustif des nombreuses lectures du pamphlétaire dans ce domaine est impossible. On en connaît en tout cas un certain nombre, dont celles qu’il cite lui-même au début de L’École des cadavres (2).
Jusqu’à la fin, Céline n’abjura en rien ses convictions. Ainsi, dans un entretien accordé un an avant sa mort à Robert Stromberg, il constate que « l’homme blanc est une chose du passé » et qu’il « a laissé l’Église le corrompre » (3). Dans son œuvre romanesque d’après-guerre, on trouve ainsi de nombreuses allusions au déclin biologique de l’homme blanc et au manque de volonté qui fut le sien de demeurer maître de son destin. C’est la raison pour laquelle il est vain, une fois encore, de faire une distinction entre le romancier et le pamphlétaire, les écrits de fiction et les écrits de combat. On ne le répètera jamais assez : l’œuvre de Céline forme un tout. Et s’il est politiquement incorrect dans les textes interdits de réédition, il l’est tout autant sur papier bible (4).

Marc LAUDELOUT


1. Exemplaire proposé dans le catalogue de la Librairie ancienne Bruno Sepulchre. Ce « roman judéo-christien du Ier siècle » parut en 1939. Professeur révoqué pour raisons politiques, Charles Lacotte se lança dans le combat et le journalisme politique à la fin du XIXème siècle. Il publia diverses brochures, dont Nos seigneurs républicains (1909), et un pamphlet Les Guêpes, qui parut très irrégulièrement de 1906 à 1939. Député socialiste de l’Aube de 1919 à 1924, il devint délégué à la propagande du PPF pour ce département sous l’Occupation. Assassiné d’une balle dans la nuque le 31 août 1943.
2. Citons à ce propos Où va l’Église ? (1938) de Henry-Robert Petit. Céline estima cet opuscule « très remarquable » et en distribua plusieurs exemplaires autour de lui. Son auteur est d’ailleurs cité dans L’École des cadavres parmi d’autres dont Henry Coston. Celui-ci confia à Emmanuel Ratier avoir procuré une documentation à Céline pour la rédaction de ce pamphlet (cf. l’émission radiophonique « Le Libre Journal de Serge de Beketch » [2001] en hommage à Coston à la suite de son décès. Voir aussi « Lettres à Henri-Robert Petit (1938-1942) » in L’Année Céline 1994, Du Lérot-Imec Éditions, pp. 67-90.
3. Robert Stromberg, « A Talk with L.-F. Céline », Evergreen Review [New York], vol. V, n° 19, July-August 1961. Traduction française dans Céline et l’actualité littéraire, 1957-1961, Les Cahiers de la nrf (Cahiers Céline 2), 1993, pp. 172-177.
4. Ainsi, pour ne citer qu’un exemple, une phrase comme « Moi qui suis extrêmement raciste... » ne figure pas dans les pamphlets mais bien dans D’un château l’autre (Pléiade, p. 161).

Il Dio di Ezra Pound

ezra_pound_01.jpg

Il Dio di Ezra Pound

di Luca Leonello Rimbotti


Fonte: mirorenzaglia [scheda fonte]

 

 

Il contraltare di Evola, dal punto di vista di una lettura “pagana” del Fascismo, fu certamente Ezra Pound. Se il primo del regime mussoliniano intese fare un risultato moderno delle virtù guerriere ario-romane, un’epifania della potenza, il secondo ne scorse i connotati di religione agreste, la cui continuità sarebbe stata garantita – più che non ostacolata – da forme di cristianesimo non dogmatiche, legate alle credenze arcaiche relative alla sacralità della terra. Se Evola vide nel movimento dei fasci una rinascenza del fato di gloria, qualcosa dunque di “uranico”, Pound rimase colpito invece dalla natura tellurica, diremmo quasi Blut-und-Boden, del comunitarismo fascista del suolo e del seme. Il significato è comunque, nei due casi, quello di una continuità ininterrotta, ben rappresentata dal particolare tipo di imperialismo veicolato dal Fascismo, tutto incentrato sull’idea di redenzione del suolo, di lavoro dei campi, di civilizzazione attraverso la coltivazione e la valorizzazione della terra.

Ezra Pound è stato probabilmente il maggiore e più profondo cesellatore del ruralismo fascista, che giudicò elemento direttamente proveniente dagli arcaici riti latini legati alla fertilità e ai cicli di natura. La “battaglia del grano”, l’impresa delle bonifiche, la celebrazione del pane quale simbolo di vita santificato dalla fatica quotidiana, non sarebbero stati, per il poeta americano, che altrettanti momenti in cui gli antichi misteri pagani tornavano a parlare al popolo, e sotto la sollecitazione ideologica di un regime che fu allo stesso tempo quanto mai attento alla modernità. E che registrò il passaggio dell’Italia a nazione più industriale che agricola, con un numero di operai che per la prima volta nel 1937 superò quello dei contadini.

Questo doppio registro, tipico del Fascismo, di portare avanti insieme i due comparti, senza deprimerne uno a vantaggio dell’altro, questa simmetrica capacità di operare lo sviluppo industriale e quello agricolo, iniettando la modernizzazione nelle tecniche di coltura ma rinforzando l’attaccamento atavico al suolo, fu la formula adottata da Mussolini per promuovere il progresso senza intaccare – ma anzi rinsaldandolo – il patrimonio immaginale legato alla terra, e per di più abbinandolo ad un reale incremento della capacità produttiva, affidata alla scelta autarchica. Della terra, con costante perseveranza, si celebrò la sacralità, facendo del suolo patrio, quello da cui il popolo ricava la fonte di vita, una vera e propria religione di massa. Questa religione popolare fascista, riscoperta intatta dall’antichità e dotata di moderne applicazioni anti-utilitariste ed anti-speculative, ebbe in Pound un cantore geniale.

La recente uscita del libro di Andrea Colombo Il Dio di Ezra Pound. Cattolicesimo e religioni del mistero (Edizioni Ares) ce ne fornisce un nuovo attestato. In questo agile ma importante lavoro noi riscopriamo tutta la profondità di una concezione del mondo incentrata su ciò che Pound definitiva “economia sacra”. Come già fatto da Caterina Ricciardi nel 1991, nella sua antologia di scritti giornalistici di Pound, anche Colombo sottolinea questa impostazione del poeta che, forte della sua recisa ostilità al mondo liberista del profitto finanziario e nemico giurato dell’usura, vide nella sana e naturale economia fascista un preciso riverbero di ancestrali tendenze sacrali. In una serie di articoli pubblicati sul settimanale “Il Meridiano di Roma” fra il 1939 e il 1943, Pound andò indagando le origini italiche, perlustrandone la vena religiosa relativa ai misteri e ai riti di fertilità. In tal modo, «Roma è Venere, l’antica dea dell’amore che ritorna a restituire il sogno pagano agli uomini», realizzando il contatto vivente fra l’antichità e il presente moderno: «E Mussolini, il Duce della bonifica e della battaglia del grano, diventa per il poeta il riesumatore dell’antica cultura agraria, la religione fondata sul mistero sacro del grano, mistero di fertilità».

Entro questi grandi spazi ideologici di rinascita moderna delle logiche arcaiche, Pound ingaggiò la sua personale lotta contro quel mondo di speculatori, affaristi privi di scrupoli e autentici criminali da lui individuato nei governanti angloamericani, che in nome dell’usura finanziaria e dell’idolatria dell’oro non avevano esitato a scatenare contro i popoli a economia organica la più distruttiva delle guerre. Proveniente per nascita egli stesso dal pericoloso milieu presbiteriano, come Colombo ricorda, Pound ben presto se ne distaccò, avvicinandosi ad una interpretazione del cristianesimo come continuità pagana sotto specie devozionale ai santi locali, alle varie Madonne, alle processioni popolari d’impronta rurale. Convinto – e a ragione – di una netta presenza neoplatonica nella stessa teologia cattolica, Pound finì col considerare la religione di Cristo come una forma neopagana di accettazione del mistero della vita. Egli contestava alla radice la filiazione del cristianesimo dall’ebraismo, affermando che invece ciò che si doveva stabilirne era la continuità con l’ellenismo e con il politeismo in auge nell’Impero romano, al cui interno il cristianesimo poté inserirsi senza traumi particolari, in virtù della sua sostanza di religione dapprima solare, erede del mitraismo, poi anche tellurica, erede delle venerande liturgie agresti.

Pound conobbe gli scritti di Frazer e di Zielinski, allora famosi, ma noi possiamo aggiungere che questa lettura poundiana, tutt’altro che peregrina, ha trovato conferma in molti studiosi di religione anche molto importanti, da Cumont a Wind, da Seznec fino a Wartburg: il cristianesimo, ed ivi compreso talora anche il papato, veicolavano sostanziose dosi di neoplatonismo pagano. L’interesse di Pound per figure come Gemisto Pletone o Sigismondo Malatesta – esemplari del neopaganesimo rinascimentale – furono il lato filosofico di un mondo ammirato profondamente da Pound, quello dell’etica economica medievale e proto-moderna, coi suoi fustigatori dell’interesse e della speculazione: un San Bernardino, ad esempio, che combatté tutta la vita l’usura, in forme anche violente e non meno anticipatrici di certi argomenti moderni.

Pound nel paganesimo, e di nuovo nel cristianesimo francescano (notoriamente di ispirazione neoplatonica), vide l’antefatto di quella guerra aperta alla schiavitù dell’interesse che solo con il Fascismo, e con la sua ideologia corporativa del “giusto prezzo”, divenne movimento mondiale di lotta al disumano profitto liberista. Il prezzo della merce, quando stabilito dalla mano pubblica, dà garanzie di giustizia, è regolato dal potere politico, ha veste legale, è insomma pretium justum; quando invece è affidato al gioco incontrollato degli interessi privati, come accade nelle economie liberiste, fornisce l’evidenza di una guerra belluina fra speculatori, a tutto danno del popolo e del suo lavoro.

Questi concetti Pound li martellò in scritti e discorsi alla radio italiana durante la guerra, e sono massicciamente presenti anche nei Cantos. E questo gli costò, come noto, l’infamia della gabbia e del manicomio, cui lo destinarono i “democratici” vincitori. Questa di Pound fu una battaglia a difesa del lavoro onesto contro la bolgia degli speculatori. A difesa della sacralità dell’economia – che è lavoro del popolo – e contro quanti al denaro attribuiscono un demoniaco potere assoluto.

Pound era in prima fila, non faceva l’intellettuale ben ripagato e ben protetto, magari pronto a cambiare bandiera al primo vento contrario. Propagandava idee, lanciava fulmini e saette contro l’ingiustizia sociale e la speculazione, come un moderno Bernardino da Feltre ci metteva la faccia del predicatore intransigente e la parola infiammata del profeta che vede prossimo l’abisso. La sua condanna dell’usura e dell’usuraio ebbe aspetti di radicalismo medievale in piena guerra mondiale.

Quest’uomo vero fu pronto a pagare di persona, senza mai rinnegare una sola parola. Si esponeva senza remore. E parlava chiaro e forte. Come ad esempio in quella lettera – riportata da Colombo – indirizzata a don Calcagno (il sacerdote eresiarca fondatore di “Crociata Italica” durante la RSI e vicino a Farinacci) nell’ottobre 1944, in cui si scagliò contro la doppiezza vaticana di Pio XII: «Credete che un figlio d’usuraio, venduto e stipendiato, o indebitato agli ebrei sia la persona più adatta a “portare le anime a Cristo”? La Chiesa una volta condannava l’usura».

Ezra Pound non era un sognatore fuori dal mondo, e nemmeno un visionario ingenuo, come hanno cercato di farlo passare certi suoi non richiesti ammiratori antifascisti. Era un perfetto lettore della realtà e un geniale interprete dell’epoca in cui visse. Ebbe chiarissima davanti a sé l’entità della prova che si stava svolgendo con la Seconda guerra mondiale. Comprese come pochi che quella era la lotta decisiva fra l’usuraio e il contadino, e che difficilmente per il vinto ci sarebbe stata una rivincita. Quando la guerra piegò verso il trionfo degli usurai – allorché, come scrisse, «i fasci del littore sono spezzati» – partecipò fino in fondo all’esperienza tragica della Repubblica Sociale, consapevole di vivere, come dice Colombo, «l’età apocalittica della fine».

L’uomo europeo deve molto a Pound. Gli deve una grande passione ideale e una formidabile attrezzatura ideologica, che è grande poesia e a volte anche grande prosa. Proprio mentre l’usura universale sta facendo a pezzi un popolo dietro l’altro, proprio mentre infuria la volontà di scannare i popoli per arricchire piccole oligarchie di speculatori apolidi, quella di Pound appare come una gigantesca opera di profezia e di riscatto.


Tante altre notizie su www.ariannaeditrice.it

L’Europe transfigurée de Raymond Abellio

L’Europe transfigurée de Raymond Abellio

par Daniel COLOGNE

assEurope.jpgEn 1978, l’éditorialiste du Figaro-Magazine constate la désuétude du clivage idéologique Droite-Gauche. Louis Pauwels appelle de ses vœux une « redistribution des cartes », une recomposition des familles de pensée selon des critères « métapolitiques ». Un de ces critères est la vision de l’histoire.

La même année, dans le sillage de son exact contemporain Mircea Eliade (1907 – 1986), Georges Soulès alias Raymond Abellio (1) observe que « les anciennes conceptions linéaires et progressistes de l’histoire font place à des conceptions cycliques » (2).

La représentation circulaire du mouvement historique se réfère à la géométrie plane. Du point de vue de la géométrie dans l’espace, c’est en toute rigueur la « sphéricité » qu’il convient d’opposer à la « linéarité » (p. 64).

Dans la vision abellienne de l’écoulement du devenir s’enchevêtrent deux spirales, l’une montante, l’autre descendante : « la double torsion du temps » (p. 342).

La spirale ascendante se caractérise par un passage de l’ampleur à l’intensité. L’intensification est synonyme de transfiguration. Elle est notamment illustrée, au VIe siècle av. J.C., par le prophétisme juif, auquel la « Latinité » sert de relais ultérieur. Abellio désigne les Latins comme les « successeurs des Juifs à l’extrême pointe de la fonction d’analyse » (p. 105), tout en plongeant les racines de sa réflexion philosophique dans le riche terreau de la pensée germanique : Maître Eckhart, Spinoza, Nietzsche, Husserl (3).

La « Latinité de Marie » (p. 340) appelle quelques réserves, même si les hauts lieux de culte de la Vierge s’échelonnent de Fatima à Banneux en passant par Lourdes et de Garabandal à Beauraing en passant par San Damiano. Il ne faut pas oublier Medzugorje ni Chestokowa, ni surtout l’importance de la mariologie dans toute l’Église orthodoxe d’Europe orientale.

On peut aussi regretter l’inachèvement d’une cyclologie sacramentale limitée au baptême et à la communion. Abellio allèche le lecteur en prétendant « fonder une symbolique historique des sacrements » (p. 13), mais elle reste malheureusement à l’état d’esquisse. Elle ouvre pourtant d’intéressantes perspectives. La décadence d’une civilisation pourrait correspondre au sacrement de l’extrême-onction, l’apogée de sa caste sacerdotale à celui de l’ordination.

Un ouvrage d’une rare densité

Assomption de l’Europe renferme 352 pages d’une rare densité. Un quart de siècle sépare la première mouture de la seconde édition. Celle-ci ne comporte cependant qu’onze notes infra-paginales. Il y est peu question de l’Islam, dont le réveil sonne un an plus tard avec la révolution iranienne (1979). Il était difficile à l’auteur de prévoir la décomposition du marxisme, dont il proclame la « perpétuité » (p. 261), la chute du Mur de Berlin et la réunification de l’Allemagne. Aussi cette dernière est-elle jugée politiquement « morte » (p. 7), au mieux « épuisée » (p. 9).

Plus clairvoyante s’avère la critique abellienne de l’américanisme et du soviétisme. L’un et l’autre sont renvoyés dos à dos comme de pitoyables dérives de théories économiques initialement européennes. L’Europe exporte vers l’Est « le socialisme libertaire et égalitaire » (p. 171) qui se « dénature » en « communisme dictatorial et niveleur » (p. 172). Elle propage vers l’Ouest « le capitalisme libéral et hiérarchisant » (p. 171) qui dévie « en productivisme monopoliste et planifié » (p. 172).

« Aux limites extrêmes de l’Ouest et de l’Est », Raymond Abellio discerne des « lieux d’évasion » (p. 187). La Californie et le Tibet sont comme des digues où « la vague d’activisme venue d’Europe » atteint son « maximum d’ampleur » (p. 145), se brise et épouse in fine un mouvement de « reflux » : le New Age et les révoltes étudiantes des années 60. Le Mai 68 de Paris est précédé par la contestation universitaire de Berkeley (1964). L’Europe tombe sous le charme d’un courant où se mêlent l’apologie de l’élan vital et l’éloge du lamaïsme d’Extrême-Asie (Ibid., note infra-paginale).

sem nome2.jpgMais remontons avec l’auteur à l’une des principales sources de « l’activisme européen » : la conquista des Amériques du Sud et centrale. Elle a vidé ces régions « de toute sève et de toute richesse pour en gorger l’Europe du moment, en sorte que les nations ibériques faillirent en mourir de pléthore et de paresse et furent même de ce fait écartées pour longtemps de l’activisme européen » (p. 233). A présent mûre pour un « futur engrossement » (p. 234), disponible pour accueillir une « migration du germe occidental » (p. 230), l’Amérique dite « latine » peut former avec l’Europe un des grands axes géopolitiques de demain, une sorte d’empire transocéanique reposant sur une puissante symbolique.

La direction Sud-Ouest correspond en effet à des moments clefs du cycle annuel et du cycle journalier. « Trois heures de l’après-midi », moment présumé de la Crucifixion de Jésus, « indique exactement l’heure du Sud-Ouest » (p. 232). Au cœur de l’été de l’hémisphère Nord, à mi-chemin entre le solstice de juin (Sud) et l’équinoxe de septembre (Ouest), dans le signe de feu du Lion que la tradition astrologique tient pour le domicile du Soleil, le calendrier festif catholique situe la Transfiguration (6 août) et l’Assomption (15 août). C’est un 6 août qu’explose la bombe atomique sur Hiroshima. L’humanité reçoit alors un « sacrement de sang » (p. 197).

Le destin spirituel de l’Europe

Dans ce genre d’évocation, l’écriture d’Abellio est saisie d’un lyrisme somptueux. « J’essaie d’imaginer ce que pourront être ces heures de la transfiguration, quand les guerriers se feront prêtres, et, n’ayant plus rien à défendre qui ne soit détruit, se découvriront les hommes les plus riches du monde » (p. 348, c’est nous qui soulignons).

Les Européens sont « des hommes qu’un siècle et demi de guerres a rejetés d’une aventure géante et pathétique » (p. 10). Quel destin leur convient-il ? Certes pas celui de « confédérés juridiques, bâtards de l’histoire » (Ibid.). Encore moins celui d’un pseudo-redressement qui se réduirait « à la réorganisation d’une maison de commerce mal tenue » (p. 11). Même « de l’Europe politique, il nous faut sortir » (p. 12), si la politique n’est plus que « dévergondage sentimental » de « boutiquiers » accoudés à leur « comptoir de chimères et de prébendes » (p. 11).

L’État de droit et l’économie de marché ne sont certes pas les apsides de « l’axe du bien », pour reprendre le sous-titre d’un livre récent. Une « politique de puissance » est-elle pour autant une judicieuse alternative ? L’auteur de cet ouvrage pense que non et estime opportun de rappeler que, pour l’Europe, « prendre conscience de son rôle sur la scène internationale » ne sera jamais « synonyme de projection de force ». L’actuelle Union européenne « a été fondée pour surmonter le jeu désastreux des politiques de puissance des États-nations. Elle ne pourrait donc pas, sans préjudice pour sa propre intégrité et pour la paix, mener à l’extérieur une politique contraire à sa nature même » (4).

La « nature » de l’Europe n’est ni marchande ni guerrière. L’Europe porte en elle le germe d’une révolution spirituelle, à condition de ne pas confondre la spiritualité avec le religieux ou le sacré. La nouvelle prêtrise évoquée par Abellio n’est pas un clergé de type médiéval ou une caste chamanique de mages ensorceleurs. C’est une aristocratie de savants dont la « longue mémoire » garantit la maîtrise de l’avenir, pour paraphraser Nietzsche. C’est une élite analogue à ces cosmographes chaldéens qui prétendaient détenir « des archives astrales s’étendant sur les 300.000 années écoulées » (p. 293).

L’Occident, devenir de l’Europe

Raymond Abellio nomme « Occident » ce germe spirituel enfermé au cœur de l’Europe. Dans l’acception abellienne du terme, l’Occident n’est donc nullement l’ensemble transatlantique euraméricain. Il ne s’identifie pas davantage à des États-Unis imbus de leur cocktail mercantiliste-belliciste, dont l’Europe devrait se distancier au nom du droit international ou de la primauté du spirituel. Pour Abellio, l’Europe doit devenir Occident pour se transfigurer. L’Occident, c’est l’Europe sublimée.

L’auteur d’Assomption de l’Europe avertit d’emblée : « Nous distinguerons fondamentalement l’Europe et l’Occident » (p. 29). Il confirme un peu plus loin : « L’Europe vit en mode d’ampleur, l’Occident en mode d’intensité » (p. 32). « Soumise au temps, c’est-à-dire à l’histoire », paraissant « fixe dans l’espace, c’est-à-dire dans la géographie » : telle est l’Europe. En revanche, l’Occident échappe au temps et à l’espace, il est méta-historique et méta-géographique, il est « mobile » et il « déplace son épicentre terrestre selon le mouvement d’avant-gardes civilisées » (p. 33). « Un jour l’Europe sera effacée des cartes, l’Occident vivra toujours » (Ibid.).

De préférence aux vocables « Orient » et « Occident » les dénominations « Est » et « Ouest » sont réservées au bloc communiste et aux États-Unis. Se référant aux travaux de l’astrologue André Barbault (5), Raymond Abellio écrit que « le couple Est-Ouest des U.S.A. et de Russie apparaît comme livré à la dialectique Uranus-Neptune » (p. 195). Certes, « les astrologues rattachent symboliquement Uranus aux U.S.A. » (Ibid., note infra-paginale) et à l’individualisme. Dans leur esprit, Uranus – « je cultive ma différence » – s’oppose à Neptune – « j’approfondis ma communion ». Pourtant, « ce fut toujours l’Est, le premier levé, qui défendit son originalité contre l’Ouest par des murailles de Chine ou des rideaux de fer » (p. 128). Derrière cette apparente contradiction se cache le secret de la « structure absolue » et une des clefs de la vision abellienne de l’histoire.

sem nome1.jpgLa « structure absolue » est l’inversion d’inversion en tant que processus intensificateur. Les valeurs symboliques des découvertes d’Uranus (1781) et de Neptune (1846) résident dans leur respective coïncidence avec les révolutions libérales bourgeoises et l’éclosion des mouvements ouvriers. Invertissant l’Ancien Régime, l’individualisme uranien est à son tour inverti par le collectivisme neptunien. Mais ce dernier intensifie le facteur Uranus sous la forme du culte de la personnalité propre à tous les régimes totalitaires : Führer, « père des peuples », « grand timonier », autant de variétés de l’archétype du « chef oriental » (p. 154).

Le collectivisme neptunien englobe une part d’Uranus (le culte du chef) tout comme l’aspiration uranienne « à commencer orgueilleusement l’avenir sans passé » (p. 121) renferme une part de Neptune (dieu des océans), qui réside peut-être dans l’utopisme démocratique des thalassocraties de l’Ouest. A l’opposé de celui-ci, l’Est « n’aspire qu’à recommencer vainement le passé sans avenir » (Ibid.). Le « fatalisme » de l’Est entre ainsi en rapport dialectique avec l’« optimisme » de l’Ouest. L’optimisme de l’Ouest n’est toutefois que « méconnaissance de sa folie ». Chaque principe porte en lui son contraire, à la manière du vieux symbole chinois de la non-dualité où la moitié blanche du yang entoure un petit point noir et la moitié noire du yin un petit point blanc.

Décadence de l’astrologie

Raymond Abellio ne se fait aucune illusion quant à l’astrologie « banale » et « vulgaire » (p. 292), dont il stigmatise « la diffusion croissante et charlatanesque » (p. 293). Mais il n’est guère plus complaisant envers les « savants profanes » aux « conceptions causalistes » qui, ignorant « l’implication indéfinie des corrélations » (p. 193), isolent le drame humain du drame cosmique, avec lequel il est pourtant en constante interaction. Depuis l’édit de Colbert (1666) et le Diktat de Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche (1756) expulsant l’astrologie des universités européennes, il ne subsiste plus, de l’antique art de la Muse Uranie, qu’une dérisoire parodie (contre-tradition) tout aussi ridiculement vilipendée par une « science moderne » (anti-tradition) limitée « depuis trois siècles » à une « quantification des faits » (p. 59). Rejoignant le diagnostic de René Guénon (1886-1951), Raymond Abellio condamne les « sciences européennes en crise » à « l’apprentissage sans fin de la multiplicité » (p. 31). Il place dans l’Europe transfigurée, qu’il nomme « Occident », l’espoir de « l’expérience unique de l’infinité » (Ibid., c’est nous qui soulignons).

L’Europe transfigurée en Occident suppose une révolution au niveau de la vision du monde. À « la durée linéaire et univoque des causes et des fins particulières » doit se substituer « la permanence sphérique d’une interaction globale dépourvue de cause et de fin » (p. 31). Ainsi tout « problème géopolitique » devient « un problème des hauteurs célestes » (p. 192).

Mais ailleurs, Raymond Abellio confesse que « jamais les situations célestes ne sont répétitives » (p. 62). Chassée par le grand portail du palais de la pensée, la « ligne du temps » rentre subrepticement par la porte de service, et l’on comprend pourquoi elle hante l’inspiration des Prix Nobel (Ilya Prigogine) et des académiciens (Jean d’Ormesson). La vision abellienne du monde est in fine non-dualiste. Elle illustre le propos de Leibniz, cité par René Guénon (6) : « Tout système est vrai en ce qu’il affirme et faux en ce qu’il nie ». Ainsi se résume peut-être l’essence de l’esprit européen.

Daniel Cologne

Notes

1 : Né à Toulouse en 1907, mort à Nice en 1986, Raymond Abellio est principalement connu pour son essai La Structure absolue, Paris, Gallimard, 1965.

2 : Assomption de l’Europe, Paris, Flammarion, 1978, p. 176. Toutes les citations suivies d’un numéro de page sont extraites de ce livre.

3 : Le Je transcendantal d’Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) est l’exemple – type d’intensification abellienne par rapport au Moi ordinaire.

4 : Louis Michel, Horizons. L’axe du bien, Bruxelles, Éditions Luc Pire, 2004, p. 72.

5 : André Barbault (né en 1920) a publié récemment un ouvrage de synthèse : Introduction à l’astrologie mondiale, Monaco, Éditions du Rocher, 2004.

6 : Le Règne de la Quantité et les Signes des Temps, Paris, Gallimard, 1970.


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Questions à Raymond Abellio sur sa vision de l’Occident

Questions à Raymond Abellio sur sa vision de l’Occident

(Revue Question De. No 4. 1974)

Vers la fin d’un certain ésotérisme

Q. Quelle place accordez-vous à ce que chacun aujourd’hui nomme « l’ésotérisme » ? Voyez-vous dans l’ésotérisme une situation radicalement nouvelle de la vie sociale et religieuse, un signe de transformation de l’Histoire présente ? Est-ce une révolte, le dernier soubresaut d’un monde en train de disparaître ou l’annonce d’une renaissance spirituelle ? Vous avez d’ailleurs intitulé votre dernier ouvrage « la fin de l’ésotérisme ». Qu’entendez-vous par là ?

R. Bien entendu, j’ai choisi un titre provocant, la provocation étant un moyen de communication utile aujourd’hui. Il faut secouer les gens pour qu’ils s’éveillent. Il est bien évident que l’ésotérisme, de par son essence, ne peut pas avoir de fin, dans la mesure où l’on admet que la connaissance en soi est toujours inachevée et inachevable, étant donné que c’est une question d’intensité. Mais « fin » signifie aussi que nous sommes dans une période de désoccultation et qu’il convient de réagir contre une certaine tendance des ésotéristes traditionnels à s’enfermer dans ce qu’ils appellent le secret. Certes, l’ésotérisme, en tant que corps de connaissance, aura toujours une frange secrète, ou plutôt un noyau secret (puisqu’encore une fois il est d’une intensité inachevable) ; mais le secret, en tant que forme moralisatrice de protection d’un corps de doctrine dont on ne connaît d’ailleurs pas le développement, me paraît quelque chose de très dégradé comme conception. C’est contre cela, finalement, que j’ai voulu être provocant. Attaquer les ésotéristes qui se servent dans leurs livres de ces formules : « Je connais beaucoup de choses, mais je ne peux pas les dire », « Je ne veux pas les dire ». Mais qu’ils n’écrivent pas de livres, alors ! Ce qu’on sait, on le sait, et l’on doit le dire. Pourquoi craindre le danger ? Les mots « danger » et « décadence », je ne les emploie pas ou je les mets entre guillemets.

Q. Mais je pense que, pour les ésotéristes qui sont, je crois, beaucoup plus occultistes qu’ésotéristes, il s’agit d’intéresser à tout prix par un pseudo-secret, par des points d’interrogation, par des conditionnels en succession infinie. Alors on voit apparaître dans ce sens de nombreuses collections d’ouvrages qui sont effectivement  la fin d’un certain ésotérisme, qui sont l’extrême du vulgaire. Par contre, on peut entendre aussi la fin de l’ésotérisme comme étant son accomplissement.

R. Parfaitement. C’est ainsi que je l’entends, dans le sens supérieur. Quand je parle de désoccultation, il est certain que c’est d’un accomplissement qu’il s’agit. C’est le besoin qu’a tout être qui cherche la connaissance, d’être illuminé par elle, et il est incontestable que l’illumination est un accomplissement. C’est assurément une fin, fin toute relative, bien entendu, que vous ressentez comme un absolu et dont vous savez bien que vous retomberez, quitte ensuite à rechercher une intensité supérieure. Mais il est certain que, chez les ésotéristes dont nous parlons, se développe aujourd’hui une sorte de « décadence ». Par exemple, le mépris qu’ils témoignent à l’Occident, à l’effort scientifique de l’Occident, est quelque chose d’incompréhensible.

Q. Le mépris de René Guénon à l’égard de l’Occident en est le meilleur exemple.

R. Il est très provocant, injuste. Mais Guénon vivait à une époque où il était nécessaire de détruire le scientisme.

Q. Guénon ne pouvant se convertir à l’hindouisme, se convertit à l’islam. Tout plutôt que l’Occident ! Partant de là, il échafaude des théories qui sont en soi assez discutables, celles de la Tradition primordiale. Celle-ci est reléguée dans un temps historique indéterminé, où les hommes sont parfaits, purs et connaissants. Il énonce alors ses idées sur l’initiation. Qu’en pensez-vous ?

 

R. Les moyens de communication que ces hommes pouvaient avoir avec le monde supérieur, avec le monde invisible, les forces divines ? Je crois qu’il est préférable de ne pas en parler, parce qu’on ne peut pas en parler. Alors, faire de ces êtres du début des temps de la Tradition, des êtres purs, omniscients, etc., cela ne fait pas très sérieux.

Q. Non seulement cela ne fait pas très sérieux, mais on retrouve tout un courant qui est pris chez Saint-Yves d’Alveydre et chez quelques autres, et la tradition de l’Aggartha n’est pas de Guénon.

R. Enfin, ces yeux tournés vers le passé, vers une sorte d’âge d’or perdu, non ! Ce n’est pas conforme à la vocation de l’Occident.

Le rôle de l’initiation

 

Q. Comment vous situez-vous par rapport aux doctrines « initiatiques » ? Pensez-vous qu’il y ait une initiation possible pour l’homme, la réalisation du « passage », faire mourir le vieil homme et renaître à la vie transcendante ? Qu’est-ce que l’initiation pour vous, et que pensez-vous des ordres initiatiques ?

R. Il se peut très bien qu’à une certaine époque historique, mal déterminée, les rites aient été un mode de communication nécessaire et privilégié, dans la mesure où l’on n’en connaissait pas la signification exacte : une sorte de magie que l’on retrouve dans certaines peuplades d’Afrique. Je crois que les rites d’initiation, tels que les conçoit Guénon, ont eu leur nécessité en Occident à une époque où, justement, la conceptualisation n’avait pas atteint le degré de nécessité et de clarté qu’elle peut atteindre aujourd’hui : de même que, dans certaines peuplades d’Afrique noire, la magie joue un rôle que joue en Europe la science. Je me rappelle l’histoire que me racontait un de mes amis. Il avait été désigné par je ne sais quelle société savante américaine pour faire une enquête auprès de peuplades primitives. Il voit, un jour, une vieille femme qui était en train de regarder le feuillage d’un arbre qui bougeait. Il dit : « Qu’est-ce que vous faites ? » Elle répondit : « Je passe » un message à mon petit-fils qui est à l’école et à qui j’ai oublié de dire ce matin de me rapporter du café. Je lui passe un message par le vent des arbres. » Il s’étonna, bien qu’il fût là pour faire des études sur la télépathie. Il demanda des explications. La femme était très gênée ; elle disait : « Vous êtes très forts, vous êtes de grands magiciens, vous avez le téléphone. » Elle considérait le téléphone comme un instrument de magie plus perfectionné. Le rite est simplement un medium de magie, moins perfectionné que le medium scientifique. C’est tout. Et l’on comprend que, selon les époques, les besoins de rites d’initiation diffèrent.

Q. Ce qui semblerait indiquer qu’aujourd’hui, selon vous, les rites d’initiation, l’appartenance à des sociétés secrètes, choses tant prônées par les milieux ésotériques de la fin du siècle dernier, ne représentent plus que l’ultime chatoiement d’un monde en voie de disparition.

R. C’est en ce sens, d’ailleurs, que j’ai parlé de la fin de l’ésotérisme — la fin d’un certain ésotérisme.

Le Renouveau de l’Occident

 

Q. Votre recherche politique se fonde sur une double connaissance : connaissance du monde spirituel traditionnel et connaissance de la technocratie moderne. Dès après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, vous avez entrepris une pénétrante méditation sur le rôle de l’Europe dans la politique future.

R. Depuis la guerre, l’Europe ne joue plus de rôle politique, ou, si elle essaie d’en jouer un, vous voyez au milieu de quelles difficultés et à quel niveau inférieur ! Actuellement, l’Europe, par l’intermédiaire des sociétés multinationales, est colonisée par l’aire américano-russe. De même, sur le plan de la recherche intellectuelle, palle marxisme russe. Nous avons à présent une aire américano-russe occidentale et une aire tibéto-chinoise. C’est dans ce sens que je donne à l’absorption du Tibet par la Chine une signification sacrée. Il y a là une véritable « théophagie ». Et c’est cela qui donne toute son amplitude au conflit est-ouest maintenant. L’Orient apparaît, de nos jours, devant la dégénérescence des religions occidentales, comme le porteur d’une puissance spirituelle par la révolution culturelle. Mais ce n’est là qu’une vision profane.

Q. Alors, selon vous, la Chine ne pourrait pas nous apporter, à nous Occidentaux, un renouveau des forces ordonnées face à une évidente dégénérescence des croyances judéo-chrétiennes et à un retour brutal des formes les plus frustes du paganisme ?

R. Je ne crois pas. Je crois que la révolution culturelle chinoise est une révolution collectiviste. Il est incontestable qu’en Chine, par exemple, les problèmes de l’homme intérieur ne sont pas posés. Le problème du sexe, celui de l’art, le problème métaphysique de la mort et de la religion sont éludés par le marxisme chinois. Or ce sont ces problèmes-là qui, dans l’invisible, commandent l’activité de la « prêtrise » occidentale à venir.

Les nouveaux prêtres… et les hippies

Q. Cette « prêtrise » invisible est-elle la suite moderne de l’antique caste des brahmanes védiques ? Voyez-vous en cela un renouveau possible à l’idée de castes ?

R. Absolument pas. Les prêtres invisibles sont des hommes qui passent au-delà des castes. Alors que les hommes de connaissance, les brahmanes, veulent institutionnaliser la connaissance, c’est-à-dire l’enfermer dans des églises, les prêtres invisibles refusent de se laisser institutionnaliser. Eux seuls sont les prêtres de la fin des temps, les nouveaux prophètes.

Q. Il est bon alors de rappeler qu’aux trois castes le plus communément admises prêtres, guerriers, agriculteurs vous opposez une vision nettement plus équilibrée de la société avec une division en quatre castes. Ces quatre castes seraient sommairement ordonnées comme suit : hommes de connaissance, de puissance, de gestion, d’exécution. Mais se pose à nouveau aujourd’hui le problème des hors-castes, les hippies et autres contestataires modernes.

R. Vous avez raison, et je suis persuadé que la mauvaise conception actuelle des quatre castes conduit à une méconnaissance de la hors-caste : celle d’en-bas disons les hippies — mais également celle d’en haut, les prêtres invisibles. Il y a incontestablement la caste des hippies qui refusent justement d’être des hommes d’exécution, de travail, mais qui ne sont pas, bien entendu, des « brahmanes ». Ils sont dans une hors-caste indéfinissable, et je crois cependant que leur rôle est capital, car c’est là que germent, dans ce terreau d’humus indifférencié, les nouvelles générations de castes. De ce point de vue, on peut même imaginer toute une sorte de géographie sacrée qui préciserait les zones de l’hémisphère occidental où apparaissent ces castes.

La notion de géographie sacrée

Q. L’existence de certaines zones privilégiées, de régions chargées de forces, d’énergies particulières, c’est pour vous, je crois, la géographie sacrée ou, tout au moins, sa structure de base. Ainsi, dans cette conception du monde, vous accordez à la Californie un rôle déterminant dans l’évolution et le développement des nouvelles hors-castes.

R. Oui, pour moi, sur un plan symbolique, la Californie est une ligne qui marque la limite à l’extrême ouest de l’Occident. Elle s’oppose à l’Amérique ; la Californie n’est pas du tout l’Amérique. Et c’est justement ce qui m’a conduit à penser qu’il y avait un symbolisme considérable dans la révolte des étudiants de Berkeley en 1964, qui a été la première manifestation dans le monde de la révolte des étudiants.

Q. Si la Californie n’est pas l’Amérique, mais l’Extrême-Occident, l’Occident n’est pas l’Europe. Je crois même que vous faites une différence fondamentale qui est, en quelque sorte, l’assise de votre géographie sacrée.

R. La distinction entre l’Europe et l’Occident est, pour moi, fondamentale. Dans notre cycle de temps, nul lieu au monde n’eut plus que l’Europe l’illusion de faire naître l’Histoire. L’Europe s’est vue comme déterminant et écrivant l’Histoire tout entière du cycle terrestre actuellement en cours, et une Histoire de plus en plus dense et dramatique. Je fais de la distinction Europe-Occident une clef fondamentale. Ainsi, l’Europe est construite, l’Occident est constitué. L’Est est le support d’une infinité passée, l’Ouest celui d’une infinité à venir : l’Occident est, entre eux, celui d’une infinité présente. Mais c’est justement parce que l’homme européen est pris actuellement dans l’implication infinie des liaisons historiques, et qu’il y est pris seul, qu’il est, à l’état naissant, le porteur de l’être occidental capable de transcender l’Histoire, de la vider de ses événements isolés et passagers et de faire émerger, ici et maintenant, une nouvelle conscience dans le monde. L’Occident est d’abord vision absolue du monde et de lui-même par la découverte d’une structure absolue. L’Europe vit en mode d’ampleur, l’Occident en mode d’intensité. L’Europe veut progresser en mode de sédimentation, l’Occident se résout en mode de cristallisation.

Q. Quel sens donnez-vous à cette opposition ?

R. Un sens dialectique. Ainsi l’Europe se livre au temps tandis que l’Occident lui échappe. L’Europe paraît fixe dans l’espace, c’est-à-dire dans la géographie, tandis que l’Occident y est mobile et déplace son épicentre terrestre selon le mouvement des avant-gardes civilisées. L’Europe est provisoire, l’Occident est éternel. Un jour, l’Europe sera politiquement effacée des cartes, mais l’Occident vivra toujours. L’Occident est partout où la conscience devient majeure.

Révélation et illumination

Q. Vous accordez une importance fondamentale à la notion de révélation dans toute votre œuvre. Vous acceptez l’idée qu’une connaissance peut venir subitement, sans apport intellectuel ; cette connaissance résume alors des formes très diverses du savoir. Elle est la gnose à l’état pur, une réalité universelle qui, soudain, relie l’homme à l’infini.

R. Tous, autant que nous sommes, nous avons eu des moments où la certitude en nous se passait de preuves. Ma propre certitude, à certains moments de ma vie, a été totale, immédiate, fulgurante. C’est ainsi que je puis vous dire, et de façon très précise, que j’ai reçu la révélation de ma clef numérique de la Kabbale le 5 avril 1946 à dix heures du matin, le Vendredi saint de cette année-là. La liste des valeurs ésotériques des nombres m’est venue globalement, sans nuance. Elle m’est tombée dessus comme un coup de tonnerre, à tel point que, pendant trois heures, je suis resté paralysé, dans un état d’immobilité absolue. Je brûlais et j’avais l’impression que ma tête allait éclater. Quand j’ai enfin pu me déplacer, je suis allé me coucher sous une tente qui était au fond du jardin. Pendant ce repos, chaque fois que j’essayais de deviner le sens précis de ma révélation, j’avais l’impression que tout pouvait sauter en moi. Une idée de plus, et mon cerveau sautait ; c’était bien un court-circuit qui s’était produit entre deux univers, le mien, celui de l’homme, et l’autre, celui de la révélation, du savoir infini, de la gnose abrupte. La notion de choc dans la révélation est, pour moi, très importante ; car je l’ai reçue comme un coup de bâton, direct, sans pitié, sans faiblesse. Mais il est, je crois, bien inutile de vous dire qu’au moment où j’ai reçu cette connaissance subite, je n’avais qu’une idée très vague de ce que la révélation m’apportait. Disons que je venais d’accrocher l’idée centrale. Ensuite, j’ai dû procéder aux applications intellectuelles. La révélation est comme un objet brut ; le stade de l’exégèse intellectuelle est celui du raffinement.

Q. Considérez-vous la découverte abrupte, la révélation comme la vérité absolue ?

R. Pas nécessairement. La certitude, aussi forte soit-elle, n’est pas forcément la vérité, même si elle s’accompagne de phénomènes étranges qui s’apparentent à ce que communément l’on nomme « Révélation ». La révélation n’est pas, pour autant, un terrain vague, une certitude reçue à travers un voile, le donné abstrait à partir duquel on tirera des élucubrations plus ou moins confuses. Elle est, au contraire, parfaite et précise ; elle s’apparente totalement à la gnose, c’est vrai ; or la gnose, c’est le domaine de la certitude absolue, instantanée et totale, sinon celui de la vérité.

Q. Du reste, dès que l’on se situe à ce niveau de la perception spirituelle, le mot « vérité », tel qu’il est communément utilisé, ne veut plus rien dire. La révélation transmise à l’homme qui vit dans le temps, dans les dimensions de l’espace, se heurte évidemment à un mur, le mur du temps. La connaissance ou la certitude intemporelles sont récupérées par des êtres qui vivent dans le temps. Ce glissement de l’intemporel au temporel affaiblit sans doute la révélation, lui fait perdre cette force immédiate, totale, instantanée et infinie qu’elle possède en elle-même.

R. Vous avez raison. Mais c’est la force de la loi du progrès : la loi de l’homme. La loi étant historique, soumise à la succession du temps, nous n’avons pas la prétention de tout vivre, de tout assumer, de tout comprendre, même nos propres moments de certitude, de révélation. Nous vivons cependant à certains moments dans des rapports privilégiés avec l’étincelle éternelle, avec l’Un informel : c’est alors la réalisation de l’homme intérieur, l’homme intérieur qui est en assomption tout au long des siècles, une assomption qui trouve sa plénitude, sa pleine réalité à chaque instant éternel de la révélation.

***

MEDITATION POUR LES DERNIÈRES FOIS

Heureux celui qui sait ne pas donner de raisons vaniteuses à ses défaites. Et encore plus heureux celui qui sait qu’il n’est pas de défaites.

Partout où nous irons désormais nous porterons en nous ce monde horizontal. Il est celui des ténèbres extérieures.

Mais la grande nouveauté est celle-ci : Ce monde ne sera plus jamais trop grand pour nous, c’est nous qui sommes devenus trop grands pour lui. Jamais plus nous ne pourrons dire comme Moïse : Je verrai la terre promise et je mourrai.

Nous avons déjà vu toutes les terres promises et nous survivons.

Ce soir, je rêve d’Archimède, insensible au tumulte des guerres et traçant sur le sable, du bout de sa canne, les figures géométriques de son énigme intérieure, tandis que le soldat, irrité, l’interpelle et se prépare à le tuer. Nous sommes voués comme lui à une connaissance et une immobilité infinies. En elles se tiennent toute dévotion, tout amour, toute adoration, tout accomplissement, tout service.

Et même si le sens de ce dernier mot nous échappe car il englobe tous les sens, et si, plus encore qu’à nous, il échappe aux Barbares, que ces derniers au moins, quand ils viendront, nous trouvent d’abord attentifs à notre art.

Rien ne peut sauver les corps. Mais on peut rêver d’un regard si plein de connaissance humaine que les corps tout entiers se perdent dans ce regard. Un jour, en rencontrant les yeux de l’homme immobile, l’assassin le moins capable de retour sur soi saura que cet assassiné était plus grand que lui. Au cœur le plus sensible de l’Europe, à l’endroit d’où elle se croit le plus absente, s’accumulent ce comble de refus et ce comble d’attention qui, par la réversibilité mystérieuse du rachat, constituent au contraire sa vraie présence.

Le goût des formes et des bavardages, la hâte du présent et la déception du lendemain, les petits brigandages politiques, le cynisme sans risques, la vulgarité des riches et la soumission des pauvres, et, par-dessus tout, l’impuissante nostalgie d’une beauté qui se refuse et d’une vérité qui se perd, composent une sorte de cri profond qui monte des plaines d’Europe, mais qui stagne dessus comme un brouillard d’hiver.

Ce désordre est trop grand. Comment en démêler les fils ? On peut aujourd’hui donner une sorte de curiosité fraternelle à ceux qui veulent mettre de l’ordre dans ce qu’on appelle le monde, et qui se jettent dans la foule.

Mais il y a temps pour tout sous le soleil.

Aujourd’hui, ce n’est pas dans ce monde qu’il faut mettre de l’ordre, mais dans nos pensées. Nous avons fait dans le monde assez d’expériences, et ce n’est pas en vain que nous en avons traîné le poids si haut. Le monde est ici, pas ailleurs.

J’essaie d’imaginer ce que pourront être ces heures de la transfiguration, quand les guerriers se feront prêtres, et, n’ayant plus rien à défendre qui ne soit détruit, se découvriront les hommes les plus riches du monde.

Extrait de l’Assomption de l’Europe (Paris, Flammarion, 1953).

POUR MIEUX CONNAÎTRE RAYMOND ABELLIO

De son vrai nom Georges Soulès, Raymond Abellio est ne le 11 novembre 1907 d Toulouse.

De 1930 à 1932, il est élève de l’École des ponts et chaussées. Ingénieur enfin, il commence une carrière qui le conduit dans la Drôme. C’est là qu’il prend contact avec le monde politique. Des 1932, il est nommé secrétaire fédéral adjoint de la S.F.I.O. En 1935, il est un des dirigeants de la dissidence socialiste connue sous le nom de Gauche révolutionnaire. A Paris, en 1936, il entre au cabinet de Jules Much. A partir de 1937, il est un des dirigeants du Parti socialiste, tout en gardant très évidente son optique Gauche révolutionnaires, que développent encore ses études marxistes et trotskystes.

Au cours des combats de 1940, il est fait prisonnier à Calais et se retrouve, pour quelque temps, dans un camp d’internement en Allemagne. Cette triste période sera occupée par quantité de réflexions. Il se lie avec différents officiers cagoulards qui partagent la même captivité. Ses options politiques sont remises en cause. Le marxisme, qu’il considéra toujours comme valable du point de vue de l’analyse économique et comme philosophie réflexive, l’a déçu, au moment de la guerre d’Espagne et du pacte Staline-Laval.

Pendant la guerre

En 1941, il est libéré et rentre en France. Il s’inscrit au Mouvement social révolutionnaire de Deloncle, dont il devient l’adjoint. Les rapports avec l’occupant restent tendus, malgré l’apparente reconnaissance du Mouvement social révolutionnaire par le nazisme.

L’année suivante, en 1942, un fait va déterminer le cours de l’évolution intellectuelle de Georges Soulès : sa rencontre avec Pierre de Combas. Ce dernier a une connaissance remarquable des grandes philosophies et doctrines traditionnelles, du judaïsme à l’hindouisme. Il a étudié les mouvements occultes et ésotériques occidentaux par ailleurs, il possède une excellente documentation sur les différents mystiques.

C’est Pierre de Combas qui, notamment, déterminera son évolution critique en face de la pensée de René Guénon.

La découverte de Husserl

Georges Soulès est bien à la recherche de tout autre chose. Son but : découvrir le véritable cheminement qui irait de la Tradition jusqu’à l’exploitation de toutes les ouvertures scientifiques offertes par le monde moderne. C’est dans ce sens, la découverte de Husserl et de la phénoménologie, découverte qui restera un des premiers événements de sa vie spéculative. La tradition hébraïque lui apporte, avec la Kabbale, les éléments du savoir religieux initiatique, tandis que la phénoménologie lui permet d’acquérir une méthode prospective et une charpente méthodique qui manquent aux traditions étudiées comme telles.

Dès cette époque sont en gestation les thèmes fondamentaux qui formeront la trame philosophique de ses livres. Selon lui, le politicien moderne est loin de représenter une vision réelle de ce que devrait être la politique authentique. Celle-ci serait, selon Soulès, appuyée à la fois sur un organisme de sociétés secrètes recelant des connaissances traditionnelles et sur un développement scientifique des facultés métapsychiques, afin d’influer, sans autres moyens que la réalisation mentale, sur les foules. La géopolitique occupe également une place dans la construction de son système. Les différents États, les continents eux-mêmes sont, certes, des réalités évidentes. Mais celles-ci ne sont quand même que les jouets de forces cosmiques et telluriques dont une plus exacte connaissance serait indispensable, afin d’accéder à la parfaite réalisation d’un pouvoir à la fois occulte et politique.

Après la guerre

En 1944, sa position devient de plus en plus difficile. Bientôt, on le recherche, et il doit se cacher.

En 1945, ce sont les gaullistes qui, à leur tour, le poursuivent. Commence alors pour lui une vie de traqué et de vagabond. Enfin, il quitte la France A la fin de février 1947. La Suisse sera son lieu d’exil jusqu’en 1951, époque à laquelle, à la suite d’un non-lieu, il rentre à Paris.

Ses années de fuite et d’exil furent les plus fructueuses, spirituellement. Sa vision du monde atteint un aspect prophétique. En 1946, il fait paraître, sous le pseudonyme d’Abellio, son premier livre. C’est un roman, Heureux les pacifiques, qui sera suivi de Les yeux d’Ezéchiel sont ouverts ; enfin, beaucoup plus tard, de la Fosse de Babel. Ces trois livres forment une trilogie romanesque sur laquelle il fonde la partie la plus publique de son œuvre. Parallèlement, il développera des recherches, avec la Bible, document chiffré, Vers un nouveau prophétisme, Assomption de l’Europe et la Structure absolue (1965).

Ce dernier ouvrage, véritable somme philosophique, est une recherche fondée sur l’ésotérisme et la phénoménologie afin de cerner la clé universelle de l’être et du devenir, des situations et des mutations.

Le monde futur

Vers un nouveau prophétisme est un « essai sur le rôle du sacré et la situation de Lucifer dans le monde moderne ». L’Occident — et l’Europe en particulier — n’a pas terminé son rôle sur la grande scène de l’Histoire. L’ultime Occident est à naître, « quand les guerriers se feront prêtres et, n’ayant plus rien à défendre qui ne soit détruit, se découvriront les hommes les plus riches du monde » (Abellio, Assomption de l’Europe).

Abellio reconnaît que nous vivons la fin d’un cycle, les dernières saccades de l’agonie. Mais cette agonie est à la mesure de notre formidable destin luciférien. L’Europe accède à son assomption et le monde entier se développe et vit et meurt selon nos concepts, nos religions, nos hérésies et nos systèmes politiques.

Une situation retient tout particulièrement son attention : celle de la Chine, Abellio ne cache pas un certain pessimisme qui s’accompagne de visions apocalyptiques dans la Fosse de Babel.

OEUVRES DE RAYMOND ABELLIO

Aux éditions Flammarion :

« Heureux les. Pacifiques », roman

« Assomption de l’Europe », essai

« La fin de l’ésotérisme », essai

Aux éditions Gallimard :

« Les yeux d’Ezéchiel sont ouverts », roman

« Vers un nouveau prophétisme », essai

« La Bible, document chiffré », 2 vol., essai

« La fosse de Babel », roman

« La structure absolue », essai

« Ma dernière mémoire », récit, le tome I est, jusqu’à présent, seul paru

« Un faubourg de Toulouse »

Dans une âme et un corps », Journal de l’année 1971

The genesis of India according to Bernard Sergent

 

The Genesis of India Acording to Bernard Sergent

A review

Dr. Koenraad ELST

Ex: http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/reviews/sergent.html/

1. A remarkable book

The debate concerning the theory of an Aryan invasion in India has taken off at last. In spite of the mutual deafness of the pro- and anti-invasionist schools, the increasing awareness of a challenge has led prominent scholars groomed in the invasionist view to collect, for the first time in their careers, actual arguments in favour of the Aryan Invasion Theory. As yet this is never in the form of a pointwise rebuttal of an existing anti-invasionist argumentation, a head-on approach so far exclusively adopted by one or two non-invasionists.

Nonetheless, some recent contributions to the archaeological and physical-anthropological aspects of the controversy pose a fresh challenge to the (by now often over-confident) noninvasionist school.

An extremely important new synthesis of various types of data is provided by Dr. Bernard Sergent in his book Genèse de l'Inde (Genesis of India), as yet only available in French (Payot, Paris 1997). The book comes as a sequel to his equally important book Les Indo-Européens (Payot 1995). Sergent is a Ph.D. in Archaeology with additional degrees in Physical Anthropology and in History, a researcher at the French National Centre for Scientific Research, and chairman of the French Society for Mythology.

One of Sergent's objectives is to counter the rising tide of skepticism against the AIT with archaeological and other proof. In particular, he proposes a precise identification of a particular Harappan-age but non-Harappan culture with the Indo-Aryans poised to invade India: the Bactrian Bronze Age culture of ca. 2500-2000 BC. At the same time, he is quite scornful of AIT critics and neglects to take their arguments apart, which means that he effectively leaves them standing. He dismisses the non-invasion theory in one sentence plus footnote as simply unbelievable and as the effect of nationalistic blindness for the shattering evidence provided by linguistics (Genèse de l'Inde, p.370 and p.477 n.485).

Nonetheless, it is important to note that, unlike Indian Marxists, he does not show any contempt for Hinduism or for the idea of India. Most people who analyze Indian culture into different contributions by peoples with divergent origins do so with the implicit or explicit message that "there is no such thing as Indian or Hindu culture, there is only a composite of divergent cultures, each of which should break free and destroy the dominant Brahminical system which propagates the false notion of a single all-Indian culture". Sergent, by contrast, admits that the ethnically different contributions have merged into an admirable synthesis, e.g.: "One of the paradoxes of India is its astonishing linguistic diversity compared with its cultural unity." (p.9) Rather than denying the idea of India, he strongly sympathizes with it: though a construct of history, India is a cultural reality.

2. Evidence provided by physical anthropology

Bernard Sergent treads sensitive ground in discussing the evidence furnished by physical anthropology. Though not identifying language with race, he maintains that in many cases, a certain correlation between language and genes may nonetheless be discernible, as explained earlier by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza and other leading population geneticists. The underlying logic is simple: people who speak a common language do so by living together as a community, and as such, they will also intermarry and pass on their genes along with their language and culture to their children. Yet, to say that there was an original Proto-Indo-European (PIE) community whose language got diversified into the existing IE languages, and whose "heirs" we IE-speakers are, is already enough to attract suspicions of Nazi fantasies, even in the case of so authoritative and objective a scholar as Bernard Sergent.

Indeed, oblique aspersions have been cast on Sergent by Jean-Paul Demoule ("Les Indo-Européens, un mythe sur mesure", La Recherche, April 1998, p.41), who uses the familiar and simple technique of juxtaposition, i.c. with the term "mother race", used off-hand by Emmanuel Leroy-Ladurie in a review of Sergent's book Les Indo-Européens. Demoule's explicit thesis is that "not one scientific fact allows support for the hypothesis of an original [PIE-speaking] people". In fact, there are no known languages which are not spoken by a living community or a "people", either in the past (e.g. Latin) or in the present. Plain common sense requires that the PIE dialects were also spoken by some such "people". If postmodernists like Demoule want to deny to the hypothetical PIE language the necessary hypothesis that it was used by a community of speakers, it is up to them to provide an alternative hypothesis plus the "scientific facts" supporting it.

A related political inhibition obstructing the progress of research in IE studies is the post1945 mistrust of migratory models as explanations of the spread of technologies, cultures or indeed languages. Sergent goes against the dominant tendency by insisting that the IE language family has spread by means of migrations (p.153-156, criticizing non-migrationist hypotheses by Jean-François Jarrige and Jim Shaffer). Prior to the telegraph and the modern electronic media, a language could indeed only be spread by being physically taken from one place to the next. In the case of India, while we need not concede Sergent's specific assumption of an Aryan immigration, it is obvious that migrations have been a key factor in the present distribution of languages. One scholar who still agrees with Dr. Sergent's commonsense position is Dr. Robert Zydenbos ("An obscurantist argument", Indian Express, 12-12-1993): "And it should be clear that languages do not migrate by themselves: people migrate, and bring languages with them."

As Sergent points out, the historical period in India has witnessed well-recorded invasions by the Greeks, Huns, Scythians, Kushanas, Arabs, Turks, Afghans and Europeans.

So, there is no need to be shy about surmising the existence and the linguistic impact of migrations, including violent ones, in the proto-historical period. It so happens that migrations may leave traces in the physical-anthropological "record" of a population, thus adding modern genetics to the sciences which can be employed in reconstructing ancient history.

Sergent claims that the oldest Homo Sapiens Sapiens racial type of India, now largely submerged by interbreeding with immigrant Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and IE populations, is the one preserved in the Vedda and Rodiya tribes of Sri Lanka. While the purely black skin is associated (by Sergent) with the population which "brought" the Dravidian languages, the Veddoid traits are found to an extent among tribal populations in south India and as far north as the Bhils and the Gonds. Perhaps Nahali is the last remnant of the lost language of this ancient layer of the Indian population, for all the said tribes including the Veddas now speak the languages of their non-tribal neighbours. (p.38)

Sergent questions the neat division of the South-Asian population into "Mediterranean", "Melano-Indian" (black-skinned, associated with the Dravidian languages) and "Veddoid" or "Australoid", introduced by British colonial anthropologists: "the Vedda, the Melano-Indians and the Indus people and the actual inhabitants of the northern half of India, which classical anthropology used to class as Mediterraneans, all belong to one same human 'current' of which they manifest the successive 'waves'. Everything indicates, physical traits as well as geographical distribution, that the Vedda have arrived first, followed by the Melano-Indians, and then the Indus people." (p.43) Note that he does not mention "Aryans" as a distinct type separate from and arriving after the "Indus people". Indeed, he joins the list of anthropologists who acknowledge the absence of a genetic discontinuity at the end of the Harappan age marking the Aryan invasion.

Sergent rejects the classical view that populations having traits halfway between the typical Veddoid and Mediterranean traits must be considered "mixed". Instead, rather than assuming discrete racial types subsequently subject to miscegenation, he posits a racial continuum, corresponding with the continuum of migrations from northeastern Africa via West Asia to South Asia. The Dravidian-speakers largely coincide with a racial type called "Melano-Indian", which is very dark-skinned but in all other respects similar not to the Melano-Africans but to the Mediterranean variety of the white race, e.g. wavy hair, a near-vertical forehead, a thinner nose. Sergent thinks they arrived in Mehrgarh well before the beginning of the Neolithic, in ca. 8,000 BC, and that they were subsequently replaced or absorbed by the real Harappans, who belonged to the "Indo-Afghan" type. (p.50)

At this point, it is customary to point to the Dravidian Brahui speakers of Baluchistan (living in the vicinity of Mehrgarh) as a remnant of the Dravidian Harappans. However, Sergent proposes that the Brahui speakers, far from being a native remnant of a pre-Harappan population of Baluchistan, only immigrated into Baluchistan from inner India in the early Muslim period. Given that Baluchi, a West-Iranian language, only established itself in Baluchistan in the 13th century ("for 2000 years, India has been retreating before Iran", p.29; indeed, both Baluchistan, including the Brahminical place of pilgrimage Hinglaj, and the Northwest Frontier Province, homeland of Panini, were partly Indo-Aryan-speaking before Baluchi and Pashtu moved in), and that the only Indo-Iranian loans in Brahui are from Baluchi and not from Pehlevi or Sindhi, Sergent deduces that Brahui was imported into its present habitat only that late. (p.130) We'll have to leave that as just a proposal for now: a Central-Indian Dravidian population migrated to Baluchistan in perhaps the 14th century.

The Harappan civilization "prolongs the ancient Neolithic of Baluchistan [viz. Mehrgarh], whose physical type is West-Asian, notably the type called (because of its contemporary location) Indo-Afghan". (p.50) This suggests that the "Indo-Afghan" type was located elsewhere before the beginning of the Neolithic in Mehrgarh, viz. in West Asia. If so, this means that the last great wave of immigrants (as opposed to smaller waves like the Scythian or the Turco-Afghan or the English which did not deeply alter the average genetic type of the Indian population) took place thousands of years before the supposed Aryan invasion. And the latter, bringing Aryans of the Indo-Afghan type into an India already populated with Harappans of the Indo-Afghan type, happens to be untraceable in the physical-anthropo-logical data.

No new blood type or skull type or skin colour marks the period when the Aryans are supposed to have invaded India. So, one potentially decisive proof of the Aryan invasion is conspicuously missing. Indeed, the physical-anthropological record is now confidently used by opponents of the AIT as proof of the continuity between the Harappan and the post-Harappan societies in northwestern India.

3. The archaeological evidence

3.1. Tracing the Aryan migrants

Though the question of Aryan origins was much disputed in the 19th century, the Aryan invasion theory has been so solidly dominant in the 20th century that attempts to prove it have been extremely rare in recent decades (why prove the obvious?), until the debate flared up again in India after 1990. In his attempt to prove the Aryan invasion, Bernard Sergent uses the archaeological record, which, paradoxically, is invoked with equal confidence by the noninvasionist school (e.g. B.B. Lal: New Light on the Indus Civilization, Aryan Books, Delhi 1997).

The crux of the matter is: can archaeologists trace a population migrating through Central Asia and settling down in India? There seems to be new hope to pin down this elusive band of migrants: "Today, thanks to the extremely rich findings in Central Asia in the past twenty years, the discovery of the 'pre-Indian Indians' has become possible." (p.33) Sergent has tried to identify a crucial stage in this itinerary: the 3rd-millennium Bactrian culture as the base from which the Indo-Aryans invaded India.

Bactria, the basin of the Amu Darya or Oxus river, now northern Afghanistan plus southeastern Uzbekistan, is historically the heartland of Iranian culture. In an Indian Urheimat scenario, the Iranians left India before the heyday of the Harappan cities. The next waystation, where they developed their own distinct culture, was Bactria, where Zarathushtra lived (in the city of Balkh). In that framework, it is entirely logical that a separate culture has been discovered in Bactria and dated to the late 3rd millennium BC. However, Bernard Sergent identifies this Bronze Age culture of Bactria, "one of the most briliant civilizations of Asia" (p.157), as that of the Indo-Aryans poised to invade India.

Though not figuring much in the development of his own theory, evidence for similarities in material culture between Harappa and Bactria is acknowledged by Bernard Sergent, e.g. ceramics resembling those found in Chanhu-Daro. This Harappan influence on the Bactrian culture proper is distinct from the existence of six fully Harappan colonies in Afghanistan, most importantly Shortugai in Bactria, "a settlement completely Harappan in character on a tributary of the Amu Darya (...) on the foot of the ore-rich Badakshan range (...) with lapis lazuli, gold, silver, copper and lead ores. Not one of the standard characteristics of the Harappan cultural complex is missing from it." (Maurizio Tosi: "De Indusbeschaving voorbij de grenzen van het Indisch subcontinent", in UNESCO exhibition book Oude Culturen in Pakistan, Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis, Brussels 1989, p.133)

Logically, the close coexistence of Harappan colonies and Bactrian settlements was a conduit for mutual influence but also a source of friction and conflict. Indian-Iranian conflict has been a constant from the Bronze Age (replacement of Harappan with Bactrian culture in Shortugai ca. 1800 BC, Genèse de l'Inde, p.180) through Pehlevi, Shaka and Afghan invasions in India until Nadir Shah's sack of Delhi in the 18th century. Any Bactrian-Harappan antagonism would fit this pattern of hostility between Indo-Aryans and Iranians. Sergent's first job is to disprove the Iranian and prove the Indo-Aryan character of the Bactrian culture; the second is to show a Bactrian immigration in late- or post-Harappan India and a subsequent overwhelming Bactrian cultural impact on Indian society.

Sergent cites Akhmadali A. Askarov's conclusion that the Harappan-Bactrian similarities are due to "influence of northwestern India on Bactria by means of a migration of Indus people to Central Asia after the end of their civilization". (p.224, with reference to A.A. Askarov: "Traditions et innovations dans la culture du nord de la Bactriane à l'âge du bronze",Colloque Archéologie, CNRS, Paris 1985, p.119-124) The acknowledgment of a Harappa-to-Bactria movement is well taken, but this poses a chronological problem, for the Bactrian culture was not subsequent to but contemporaneous with Harappan culture. Sergent solves the problem by pointing out that Askarov and other Soviet scholars who first dug up the sites in Margiana (eastern Turkmenistan) and Bactria, used an obsolete form of C-14 Carbon dating, and that newer methods have pushed the chronology of these sites back by centuries, making Bactrian culture contemporaneous with Harappa. (p.160)

For Sergent, this chronological correction is essential: if the Bactrian culture was that of the Indo-Aryans who brought down the Indus civilization, it is necessary that they lived there before the end of the latter. But this synchronism is equally compatible with a dim pre-Harappan kinship between the Bactrian and Harappan cultures, which were different yet partly similar, a similarity which Askarov and Sergent attribute to Harappa-to-Bactria influence (which must inevitably have existed), but which may also owe something to a common origin.

Sergent then mentions a number of similarities in material culture between the Bactrian culture and some cultures in Central Asia and in Iran proper, e.g. ceramics like those of Namazga-V (southern Turkmenistan). Some of these were loans from Elam which were being transmitted from one Iranian (in his reconstruction, Indo-Iranian) settlement to the next, e.g. the so-called "Luristan bronzes", Luristan being a Southwest-Iranian region where Elamite culture was located. Some were loans from the "neighbouring and older" (p.158) culture of Margiana: does this not indicate an east-to-west gradient for the Indo-Iranians?

Well, one effect of Sergent's chronological correction is that what seem to be influences from elsewhere on Bactrian culture, may have to be reversed: "From that point onwards, the direction of exchanges and influences gets partly reversed: a number of similarities can just as well be explained by an influence of Bactria on another region as one of another on Bactria." (p.160) Note that this fits the Iranian east-to-west expansion implicit in the Avestic data and in the first chapter of the Zoroastrian Vendidad, which puts Afghanistan in the centre of the Iranian world, with the Caspian region hardly on the horizon yet. So, even for the relation between the Bactrian culture and its neighbours, the proper northwest-to-southeast direction required by the AIT has not been demonstrated, let alone a movement all the way from the northern Caspian region to India. And if there was transmission from other cultures to Bactria (as of course there was), this does not prove that the Bactrians were colonists originating in these other cultures; they may simply have practised commerce. Conversely, if they were colonists from elsewhere, they may have been colonists originating in pre-Harappan India.

At any rate, all the sites related in material culture to the prototypical Bactrian settlement of Dashli are in present-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan or Iran proper, without exception regions which were Iranian at the time they made their appearance in written history, mostly in the last millennium BC. While migrations are obviously possible, this Iranian bias says something about the burden of proof. It is entirely reasonable to accept as a starting hypothesis that the Dashli settlement, like its sister settlements, was Iranian. Those who insist it was something else, should accept the burden of proving that Dashli was Indo-Aryan, that migrations took place in which the Indo-Aryans there made way for Iranians.

3.3. Bactria vs. Harappa

A new insight based on archaeology and detrimental to the stereotypical Harap-pan/Aryan opposition, is that the Harappans were not matriarchal pacifists after all, that they did have weapons and fortifications, "just like" the Aryans (see e.g. Shereen Ratnagar: Enquiries into the Political Organization of Harappan Society, Ravish Publ., Pune 1991; note that Prof. Ratnagar is a virulent critic of all Indocentric revisions of the Aryan question, as in her article "Revisionist at work: a chauvinistic inversion of the Aryan invasion theory", Frontline, 9-2-1996, an attack on Prof. N.S. Rajaram). Yet, Sergent insists that the old picture still holds good: relatively unarmed mercantile Harappans versus heavily armed Aryans preparing their invasion in Bactria. The Bactrian settlements abound in metal weaponry, and this does present a contrast with the relative paucity of weapons in Harappa. The latter was a well-ordered mercantile society, Bactria a frontier society.

This contrast actually reminds us of a contrast between Iranian and Indian in the historical period. In pre-Alexandrine Iranian royal inscriptions, we come across truly shameless expressions of pride in bloody victories, even defiantly detailing the cruel treatment meted out to the defeated kings. By contrast, in Ashoka's inscriptions, we find apologies for the bloody Kalinga war and a call for establishing peace and order. Far from being a purely Buddhist reaction against prevalent Hindu martial customs, Ashoka's relative pacifism presents a personal variation within a broader and more ancient tradition of Ahimsa, nonviolence, best expressed in some sections of the Mahabharata. Though this epic (and most explicitly its section known as the Bhagavad Gita) rejects the extremist non-violence propagated by Mahatma Gandhi and also by the wavering Arjuna before the decisive battle, Krishna's exhortation to fight comes only after every peaceful means of appeasing or reconciling the enemy has been tried, whence the Hindu dictum Ahimsa paramo dharma, "non-violence is the highest religious duty".

True, the Vedas seem to be inspired by the same martial spirit of the Iranian inscriptions, but in the Indocentric chronology, they predate the high tide of Harappan civilization, belonging to a pre-Harappan period of conquest, viz. the conquest of the northwest by the Yamuna/Saraswati-based Puru tribe. Their westward conquest was connected with a larger westward movement which included the Iranian conquest of Central Asia (later continued into the Caspian area and West Asia). By way of hypothesis, I propose that Ahimsa was a largely post-Vedic development, and that the Iranians (who had a taste of it through Zarathushtra's strictures against animal sacrifice and the like) missed its more radical phase, sticking instead to the more uncivilized glorification of victory by means of force. This would concur with the finding of a more military orientation of Bactrian culture as compared with the post-Vedic Harappan culture.

3.4. The Bactrian tripura

In the principal Bactrian site of Dashli, a circular building with three concentric walls has been found. The building was divided into a number of rooms and inside, three fireplaces on platforms were discovered along with the charred remains of sacrificed animals. In this building, its Soviet excavator Viktor Sarianidi recognized an Iranian temple, but Sergent explains why he disagrees with him. (p.161) He argues that the Vedic Aryans were as much fire-worshippers as the Iranians, and that they sacrificed animals just like the early Iranians did (prior to the establishment of Zarathushtra's reforms, and even later, cfr. the bull sacrifice in the Roman-age Mithras cult), so that the excavated fire altars could be either Indo-Aryan or Iranian.

Of course, India and Iran have a large common heritage, and many religious practices, mythical motifs and other cultural items in both were the same or closely similar. But that truism will not do to satisfy Sergent's purpose, which is to show that the Bactrian culture was not generally Indo-Iranian, and definitely not Iranian, but specifically Indo-Aryan. There is nothing decisively un-Iranian about the Dashli fire altars, and I think Sarianidi's identification of Dashli as Iranian remains undisproven.

In fact, there may well be something un-Indic and specifically Iranian about it. First of all, roundness in buildings is highly unusual in Hindu culture, which has a strong preference for square plans (even vertically, as in windows, where rectangular shapes are preferred over arches), in evidence already in the Harappan cities. Moreover, Sergent notes the similarity with a fire temple found in Togolok, Margiana. The Togolok fire altar has gained fame by yielding traces of a plant used in the Soma (Iranian: Haoma) sacrifice: laboratory analysis in Moscow showed this to be Ephedra, a stimulant still used in ephedrine and derivative products.

Asko Parpola has tried to identify the Togolok temple as Indo-Iranian and possibly proto-Vedic, citing the Soma sacrifice there as evidence: the Rg-Vedic people reproached their Dasa (Iranian) enemies for not performing rituals including the Soma ritual, so Parpola ("The coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethnic identity of the Dasas", in Studia Orientalia, vol.64, Helsinki 1988, p.195-265) identifies the former with the "Haumavarga Shakas" or Soma-using Scythians mentioned in Zoroastrian texts. However, every testimony we have of the Scythians, including the Haumavarga ones in whose sites traces of the Soma ceremony have been found, is as an Iranian-speaking people. It is possible that the sedentary Iranians included all nomads in their term Shaka, even the hypothetical Vedic-Aryan nomads on their way to India, but it is not more than just possible. The use of Soma was a bone of contention within Mazdeism, with Zarathushtra apparently opposing it against its adepts who were equally Iranian. There is nothing against characterizing the Togolok fire temple as Iranian.

And even if Thomas Burrow ("The Proto-Indoaryans", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1973, cited with approval by Sergent: Genèse de l'Inde, p.232) were right with his thesis that the Mazdean religion originated in a sustained reaction against the Indo-Aryans present in Bactria and throughout the Iranian speech area, making the non-Zoroastrian faction in Greater Iran an Indo-Aryan foreign resident group, it remains to be proven that these dissident Indo-Aryans made way for Zoroastrian hegemony in Iran by moving out, and more specifically by moving to India, somewhat like Moses taking the Israelites out of Egypt. There is neither scriptural nor archaeological evidence for such a scenario: the normal course of events would be assimilation by the dominant group, and the only emigration from Iranian territory (if it had already been iranianized) by Indo-Aryans that we know of, is the movement of the Mitannic Indo-Aryans from the southern Caspian area into Mesopotamia and even as far as Palestine.

In the Dashli building, Asko Parpola recognized a tripura such as have been described in the Vedic literature as the strongholds with three circular concentric walls of the Dasas or Asuras (Asura/Ahura worshippers), whom Parpola himself has identified elsewhere as Iranians ("The coming of the Aryans", Studia Orientalia, vol.64, p.212-215, with reference to Shatapatha Brahmana 6:3:3:24-25; and: "The problem of the Aryans and the Soma", in G. Erdosy ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.368 ff.). So, chances are once more that the Soma-holding fire-altars, like the tripura structures around them, in both Togolok and Dashli, were Iranian. Parpola (in Erdosy, ibid.) makes this conclusion even more compelling when he informs us that a similar building in Kutlug-Tepe "demonstrates that the tradition of building forts with three concentric walls survived in Bactria until Achaemenid times" -- when the region was undoubtedly Iranian.

Moreover, Parpola points out details in the Vedic descriptions of the tripura-holding Dasas and Asuras which neatly fit the Bactrian culture: the Rg-Veda "places the Dasa strongholds (..) in the mountainous area", which is what Afghanistan looks like to people from the Ganga-Saraswati-Indus plains; it speaks of "a hundred forts" of the Dasa, while the Vedic Aryans themselves "are never said to have anything but fire or rivers as their 'forts'. The later Vedic texts confirm this by stating that when the Asuras and Devas were fighting, the Asuras always won in the beginning, because they alone had forts. (...) The Rg-Vedic Aryans described their enemy as rich and powerful, defending their cattle, gold and wonderful treasures with sharp weapons, horses and chariots. This description fits the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex in Bactria, with its finely decorated golden cups, weapons with ornamental animal figurines including the horse, and trumpets indicative of chariot warfare." (in Erdosy, ibid.)

This may pose a chronological problem to those who consider the Rg-Veda as pre-Bronze Age, or perhaps not, e.g. Parpola notes that the term tripura was "unknown to the Rg-Veda" and only appears later, "in the Brahmana texts" (in Erdosy, p.369) which noninvasionists date to the high Harappan period, contemporaneous with the Bactrian Bronze Age culture. At any rate, it affirms in so many words that the Bactrian Bronze Age culture was Dasa or Asura, terms which Parpola ("The coming of the Aryans", Studia Orientalia, vol.64, p.224) had identified with "the carriers of the Bronze Age culture of Greater Iran". It also constitutes a challenge to those who make India the Urheimat of IE or at least of Indo-Iranian: if the presumed tripuras are a distinctly Dasa/Iranian element, identified as such in Vedic literature, and if the Vedic Aryans fought the Dasas in India, as the Rg-Vedic data indicate, should we not be able to find some tripuras in India too? Or did the Iranians only develop them after leaving India but while still waging occasional wars on the Indian border?

3.5. Were the Bactrians Indo-Aryans?

Other artefacts in Dashli have the same Iranian/Indo-Aryan ambiguity with a preference for the Iranian alternative. A vase in Dashli shows a scene with men wearing a kind of shirt leaving one shoulder uncovered. In this, Sergent recognizes the upanayana ceremony, in which a youngster is invested with the sacred shirt or thread. (p.163) But this is both a Vedic and a Zoroastrian ritual, with the latter resembling the depicted scene more closely: in India, only a thread is given, but among Zoroastrians, it is an actual shirt.

Some vases display horned snakes or dragons carrying one or more suns inside of them: according to Sergent, this refers to an Indo-Iranian dragon myth, attested in slightly greater detail in the Rg-Veda than in the Avesta (but what else would you expect, with Vedic literature being much larger, older and better preserved than the Avestan corpus?), about Indra liberating the sun by slaying the dragon Vrtra, or in the Avesta, Keresaspa killing the snake Azhi Srvara, "the horned one". (p.163-164, ref. to Rg-Veda 1:51:4, 1:54:6) The sources which drew his attention to this picture, both Soviet and French (Russian articles from the 1970s by Viktor Sarianidi and by I.S. Masimof, and Marie-Hélène Pottier: Matériel Funéraire de la Bactriane Méridionale à l'Age du Bronze, Paris 1984, p.82 ff.), are agreed that it is specifically Iranian, and we have no reason to disbelieve them. What Sergent adds is only that, like with the fire cult, it could just as well be Indo-Aryan; but that does not amount to proof of its Indo-Aryan rather than Iranian identity.

Several depictions (statuettes, seals) of a fertility goddess associated with watery themes have been found. Sergent points out that they are unrelated to Mesopotamian mythology but closely related to the "Indo-Iranian" goddess known in India as Saraswati, in Iran as Anahita. Which shall it be in this particular case, Iranian or Indian, Avestan or Vedic? Sergent himself adds that the closest written description corresponding to the visual iconography in question is found in Yasht 5 of the Avesta. (p.163)

Of course we must remain open to new interpretations and new findings. In this field, confident assertions can be overruled the same day by new discoveries. But if Sergent himself, all while advocating an Indo-Aryan interpretation of the known Bactrian findings, is giving us so many hints that their identity is uncertain at best, and otherwise more likely Iranian than Indo-Aryan, we have reason to believe in the Iranian identification established by other researchers. On the strength of the data he offers, the safest bet is that the Bactrian Bronze Age culture was the centre of Iranian culture.

This happens to agree with the evidence of Zoroastrian scripture, which has dialectal features pointing to the northeast of the historical Iranian linguistic space, meaning Bactria, and which specifically locates Zarathushtra in Bahlika/Balkh, a town in northern Afghanistan. It tallies with the list of regions in the opening chapter of the Vendidad, corresponding to Bactria, Sogdia, Pamir, Margiana, southern Afghanistan and northwestern India (Hapta Hendu, the Vedic Sapta Sindhavah), which happens to put Balkh near the geographical centre. Iran proper was iranianized only well after Zarathushtra's preaching. As Sergent notes, in ca. 1900 BC, the Namazga culture in Turkmenistan changes considerably taking in the influence of the then fast-expanding Bactria-Margiana culture (p.179): I read that as the Iranian expansion from their historical heartland westward into the south-Caspian area. From there, but again only after a few more centuries, they were to colonize Kurdistan/Media and Fars/Persia, where their kingdoms were to flourish into far-flung empires in the 1st millennium BC.

It is only logical that the dominant religious tradition in a civilization is the one developed in its demographic and cultural metropolis: the Veda in the Saraswati basin, the Avesta in the Oxus basin, i.e. Bactria. That Bactria did have the status of a metropolis is suggested by Sergent's own description of its Bronze Age culture as "one of the most brilliant in Asia". Though provincial compared with Harappa, it was a worthy metropolis to the somewhat less polished Iranian civilization.

3.6. Clarions of the Aryan invaders

Another distinctively Aryan innovation attested in Dashli was the trumpet: "Bactria has yielded a number of trumpets; some others had been found earlier in Tepe Hissar and Astrabad (northeastern Iran); Roman Ghirshman proposed to connect these instruments with the use of the horse, with the Iranian cavalry manoeuvring to the sound of the clarion. (...) In ancient India, the trumpet is not mentioned in the written sources". (p.162) Would it not be logical if the same type of cavalry manoeuvres had yielded the Aryans both Iran and India? In that case, we should have encountered some references to clarions in the Vedas. But no, as per Sergent's own reading, the Rg-Veda, supposedly the record of Aryan settlement in India, knows nothing of trumpets; though post-Harappan depictions of riders with trumpets are known.

All this falls into place if we follow the chronology given by K.D. Sethna and other Indian dissidents: the Rg-Veda was not younger but older than the Bronze Age and the heyday of Harappa. So, the trumpet was invented in the intervening period, say 2,500 BC, and then used in the subsequent Iranian conquest of Bactria, Margiana and Iran.

The comparatively recent migration into Iran of the Iranians, who supposedly covered the short distance from the Volga mouth to Iran in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC (losing the wayward Indo-Aryans along the way), has not been mapped archaeologically, in contrast with the successive Kurgan expansion waves into Europe. Jean Haudry reports optimistically: "Since the late 3rd millennium BC, an undecorated black pottery appears in Tepe Hissar (Turkmenistan), together with violin-shaped female idols and esp. with bronze weapons, the horse and the war chariots, and -- a detail of which R. Ghirshman has demonstrated the importance -- the clarion, indispensible instrument for collective chariot maneuvers. We can follow them from a distance on their way to the south." (J. Haudry: Les Indo-Européens, p.118, with reference to R. Ghirshman: L'Iran et les Migrations des Indo-Aryans et des Iraniens, 1977) But this is not necessarily the entry of "the" Iranians into Iran, and if it is, it need not have the Kurgan area as its starting-point.

In the account of Roman Ghirshman and Jean Haudry, the proto-Iranians with their clarions travelled "to the south". Rather than Indo-Iranians on their way from South Russia to Iran and partly to India, these may just as well be the Iranians on their way from Bactria (and ultimately from India), via the Aral Lake area, to Iran and Mesopotamia. Indeed, viewed from Iran, entrants from Russia and from India would arrive through the same route, viz. from the Aral Lake southward. A look at the map suffices to show this: rather than go in a straight line across the mountains, substantial groups of migrants would follow the far more hospitable route through the fertile Oxus valley to the Aral Lake area, and then proceed south from there.

Even in Bernard Sergent's erudite book, I have not found any data which compel us to accept that a particular culture can be identified with the very first Indo-Iranian wave of migrants; Central Asia was criss-crossed for millennia by variegated Iranian-speaking tribes. Nonetheless, Haudry's clarion-wielders of "the late 3rd millennium BC" and Sergent's occupiers of Namazga "in ca. 1900 BC" may of course be the first Iranian intruders into Turkmenistan and Persia, but that would serve the Indocentric theory even better, for Sergent's data show that these intruders came from Bactria, not from Russia.

3.7. Bactrian invasion in India

Thus far, the archaeological argument advanced by some scholars in favour of an Aryan invasion into India has not been very convincing. Consider e.g. this circular reasoning by Prof. Romila Thapar ("The Perennial Aryans", Seminar, December 1992): "In Haryana and the western Ganga plain, there was an earlier Ochre Colour Pottery going back to about 1500 BC or some elements of the Chalcolithic cultures using Black-and-Red Ware. Later in about 800 BC there evolved the Painted Grey Ware culture. The geographical focus of this culture seems to be the Doab, although the pottery is widely distributed across northern Rajasthan, Panjab, Haryana and western U.P. None of these post-Harappan cultures, identifiable by their pottery, are found beyond the Indus. Yet this would be expected if 'the Aryans' were a people indigenous to India with some diffusion to Iran, and if the attempt was to find archaeological correlates for the affinities between Old Indo-Aryan and Old Avestan."

Firstly, if no common pottery type is found in Iran and India in 1500-800 BC, and if this counts as proof that no migration from India to Iran took place, then it also proves that no migration from Iran to India took place. In particular, the PGW, long identified with the Indo-Aryans, cannot be traced to Central Asia; if it belonged to Aryans, then not to Aryan invaders. So, if substantiated, Prof. Thapar's statement is actually an argument against an Aryan invasion in ca. 1500 BC. Secondly, if the absence of migration in either direction in the period from 1500 BC onwards is really proven, this evidence remains compatible with an Indo-European emigration from India in another time bracket, say between 6000 and 2000 BC.

In spite of the impression created in popular literature, archaeology has by no means demonstrated that there was an Aryan immigration into India. Even the new levels in accuracy do not affect the following status quaestionis of the Aryan Invasion theory: "The question of Indo-European migrations into the subcontinent of India can, at best, be described as enigmatic." (David G. Zanotti: "Another Aspect of the Indo-European Question", Journal of Indo-European Studies, 1975/3, p.260) Thus, among those who assume the Aryan Invasion, there is no consensus on when it took place, and some AIT archaeologists alter the chronology so much that the theory comes to mean the opposite of what it is usually believed to mean, viz. an affirmation of Aryan dominance in Harappa rather than an Aryan destruction of Harappa: "[This] episode of elite dominance which brought the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family to India (...) may have been as early as the floruit of the Indus civilization (...)" (C. Renfrew: "Before Babel", Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 1, p.14)

Enter Bernard Sergent. He builds on a corpus of findings (some of them already used by Asko Parpola) pertaining to the apparent entry of elements from the Bactrian Bronze Age culture into late- and post-Harappan northwestern India. He also offers a theory of how these Bactrians may have caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization, parallel with the contemporaneous crisis in civilizations in Central and West Asia.

Civilization and urbanization are closely related to commerce, exchange, colonization of mining areas, and other socio-economic processes which presuppose communications and transport. When communication and transport cease, we see cultures suffer decline, e.g. the Tasmanian aboriginals, living in splendid isolation for thousands of years, had lost many of the skills which mankind had developed in the Stone Age, including the art of making fire. One of the reasons why the Eurasian continent won out against Africa and the Americas in the march of progress, was the fairly easy and well-developed contact routes between the different civilizations of Europe, Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. So, one can force decline on a culture by cutting off its trade routes, a tactic routinely used for short periods (hence only with limited long-term effect) in wartime, but which seems to have troubled the ancient civilizations in ca. 2000 BC with devastating effect for several centuries. It was in reaction to this destabilization of international trade links that the civilizational centres started building empires by the mid-2nd millennium, e.g. the Kassite empire in Mesopotamia where there had only been city-states (Ur, Uruk, Isin, Larsa, etc.) prior to the great crisis.

Or so Sergent says. Dismissing the thesis of a climatological crisis (though such a crisis would by itself already trigger an economic crisis even in the areas not directly affected climatologically), he argues that only an economic crisis can explain the simultaneous decline of cities in widely different locations, some near rivers and some on hills, some in densely populated agglomerations and some overlooking thinly populated steppes or mountain areas, some in hot and some in colder areas. The ones to blame are -- who else? -- the Aryans. They, and "specifically Indo-Aryans" (p.198-99), played a role in the Hurrian and Kassite invasions disrupting Mesopotamia (while the IE or non-IE identity of the Guti and Lullubi invaders remains unknown, though attempts are made to link the Guti with the Tocharians); and from Bactria, they by themselves disrupted the economy of the Indus-Saraswati civilization.

They didn't physically destroy the Harappan cities, as Mortimer Wheeler and others of his generation thought: "No trace of destruction has been observed in these cities." (p.201) But by creating insecurity for the travelling traders, they bled and suffocated the economy which made city life possible, and thus forced the Harappans to abandon their cities and return to a pre-urban lifestyle. The declining and fragmented Harappan country and society then fell an easy prey to the Indo-Aryan invaders from Bactria.

This scenario has been attested in writing in the case of Mesopotamia. Sergent quotes other experts to the effect that "from ca. 2230 BC, (...) the Guti had cut off the roads, ruined the countryside, set the cities on fire" (p.199, quoting Paul Garelli: Le Proche-Orient Asiatique, PUF, Paris 1969, p.89-93), that the Assyrian trade system was disrupted by the Mitannic people, etc. But is there similar evidence for the Indus-Saraswati civilization?

Sergent cites findings that in the final stage of Mohenjo Daro, we see the large mansions of the rich subdivided into small apartments for the poor, the water supply system neglected, the roads and houses no longer following the plan. (p.200) This certainly marks a decline, the rich losing their power and the powerful losing their control and resources. Same story in Harappa, Chanhu Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal: a great loss of quality in architecture and organization in the last phase. Moreover, all traces of long-distance trade disappear (just as in Mesopotamia, all signs of commerce with "Meluhha"/Sindh disappear by 2000 BC), and trade is the basis of city life. So, "these cities didn't need to be destroyed: they had lost their reason for existing, and were vacated". (p.201) But that doesn't bring any Indo-Aryan invasion into the picture. Indeed, it is perfectly compatible with a hypothesis of Iranian Bactrians disrupting a Harappan economy manned by Indo-Aryans.

3.8. Aryan invader settlements in India

To Bernard Sergent, the "strategic" key to the Aryan invasion puzzle has been provided by the discovery, by a French team in 1968, of the post-Harappan town of Pirak, near the Bolan pass and near Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. Pirak was a new settlement dating back only to the 18th century BC. Culturally it was closely related to the societies to its north and west, especially Bactria. Sergent sums up a long list of precise material items which Pirak had in common with those non-Indian regions. (p.219 ff.) So, this was a settlement of foreign newcomers bringing some foreign culture with them.

Sergent will certainly convince many readers by asserting that in Pirak, "the horse makes its appearance in India, both through bones and in figurines", and this "connotes without any possible doubt the arrival in India of the first Indo-European-speaking populations". (p.221) That depends entirely on how much we make of the limited but real evidence of horses in the Harappan civilization. Note moreover that while the horse was important to the Indo-Aryans, the Bactrian two-humped camel was not; but in Pirak, both camel and horse are conspicuous, both in skeletal remains and in depictions.

If the Bactrian culture and those to its west were Iranian-speaking, which is likely, then Pirak is simply an Iranian settlement in an Indian border region, a southward extension of the Bactrian culture. Indo-Iranian borders have been fluctuating for millennia, while different groups of Iranians down to Nadir Shah have again and again tried to invade India, so the Iranian intrusion in Pirak (which may have ended up assimilated into its Indo-Aryan environment) need not be the momentous historical breakthrough which it is to Sergent. It would only be that if it can be shown that the Pirak innovations are repeated in many North-Indian sites in the subsequent centuries, where we know that the dominant culture was Indo-Aryan.

A related culture is the Cemetery H culture on the outskirts of Harappa itself. Sergent offers a detail which is distinctly non-Vedic and Mazdean (Zoroastrian): "The dead, represented by unconnected skulls and bones, were placed, after exposure, in big jars". (p.224; emphasis added) Exposure to birds and insects is still the first stage in the Zoroastrian disposal of the dead. Sergent also reports that the influence of the native Harappan civilization is much greater here than in Pirak. So, as the Iranian invaders moved deeper inland, across the Indus, they soon lost their distinctiveness. Considering that Afghan dynasties have ruled parts of India as far east as Bengal, using Persian and building in a West-Asian style, this post-Harappan Iranian intrusion as far as the Indus riverside is not that impressive.

Indeed, from the Indus eastwards, we lose track of this Bactrian invasion. Sergent himself admits as much: "For the sequel, archaeology offers little help. The diggings in India for the 2nd millennium BC reveal a large number of regional cultures, generally rather poor, and to decree what within them represents the Indo-Aryan or the indigenous contribution would be arbitrary. If Pirak (...) represents the start of Indian culture, there is in the present state of Indian archaeology no 'post-Pirak' except at Pirak itself, which lasted till the 7th century BC: the site remained, along with a few very nearby ones, isolated." (p.246-247) So, the Bactrian invaders who arrived through the Bolan pass and established themselves in and around the border town of Pirak, never crossed the Indus, and never made their mark on India the way the Indo-Aryans did.

This confirms the statement by the American archaeologist Jim Shaffer that "no material culture is found to move from west to east across the Indus" (personal communication, 1996), or more academically, that the demographic eastward shift of the Harappan population during the decline of their cities, i.e. an intra-Indian movement from Indus and Saraswati to Ganga, "is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in South Asia before the first half of the first millennium BC", while the archaeological record shows "no significant discontinuities" for the period when the Aryan invasion should have made its mark. (Jim Shaffer and Diane Lichtenstein: "The concepts of 'cultural tradition' and 'palaeoethnicity' in South-Asian archaeology", in G. Erdosy, ed.: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.139-140)

The Pirak people were not the Vedic Aryans conquering India. The Aryan invasion of India has somehow gone missing from the archaeological record, and this is admitted by Sergent himself in the very section containing his decisive piece of evidence for the Aryan Invasion Theory.

3.9. Scriptural evidence

To fortify his reconstruction of the Aryan invasion, Bernard Sergent repeats some well-known scriptural references. Indian authors are right in pointing out that this is systematically the weakest part in AIT argumentations, as the knowledge of Vedic literature among Western scholars is either too limited or too distorted by AIT presuppositions. Sergent's arguments at this point repeat well-known claims about the contents of the Vedas. Thus, the Rg-Veda was written by foreigners because it doesn't know the tiger nor rice nor "the domesticated elephant which existed in the Harappan Indus culture". (p.241)

As for the tiger, it is often said that India was divided in a lion zone in the west and a tiger zone in the rest. This image persists in the symbolism of the civil war in Sri Lanka: the Sinhalese, originating in Gujarat (where lions exist even today), have the lion as their symbol, while the separatists among the Tamils, originating in southeastern India, call themselves the Tigers. However, to judge from the Harappan seal imagery, tigers did originally exist in the Saraswati and Indus basins as well, overlapping with the lion zone. As Sir Monier Monier-Williams (Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.1036, entry vyâghra) notes, in the Atharva-Veda, "vyâghra/tiger is often mentioned together with the lion". It is simply impossible that the Rg-Vedic seers, even if they were unfamiliar with the Ganga basin (quod non), had never heard of tigers.

As for the domesticated elephant, if it was known in Harappa, does anyone seriously suggest that it was not known in the same area in subsequent centuries by the Vedic Aryans?

While regression in knowledge and technology does sometimes happen, there is no reason whatsoever why people who could domesticate elephants would have lost this useful skill, which is not dependent on foreign trade or urbanization, when the Harappan cities declined. Isn't the mention of how "the people deck him like a docile king of elephants" (Rg-Veda 9:57:3, thus translated by Ralph Griffith: Hymns of the Rg-Veda, p.488) a reference to the Hindu custom of taking adorned domesticated elephants in pageants?

Rice, according to Sergent himself, made its appearance in the Indus basin in the late Harappan period, and was known to the Bactrian invaders in Pirak. (p.230) He identifies those Bactrian invaders as the Vedic Aryans, so why haven't they mentioned rice in their Rg-Veda? One simple answer would be that the Rg-Veda is pre-Harappan, composed at a time when rice was not yet cultivated in northwestern India. This chronological correction solves a lot of similar arguments from silence. Thus, there was cotton in Harappa and after, but no cotton in the Rg-Veda. Bronze swords were used aplenty in the Bactrian culture and in Pirak, but are not mentioned in the Rg-Veda; a short knife can be made from soft metals like gold or copper, but a sword requires advanced bronze or iron metallurgy. (Ralph Griffith uses "sword" twice in his translation The Hymns of the Rg-Veda, p.25, verse 1:37:2, and p.544, verse 10:20:6, both already in the younger part of the Rg-Veda, but in the index on p.702 he corrects himself, specifying that "knife" or "dagger" would be more appropriate.) Likewise, the core stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the ones most likely to stay close to the original versions even in their material details (unlike the many sideshows woven into these epics, often narrating much more recent events), feature only primitive pre-Bronze Age weapons: Rama's bow and arrow, Hanuman's club.

Camels were part of the Bactrian culture and its Pirak offshoot, but are not mentioned in the Rg-Veda except for its rather late 8th book, which mentions Bactrian fauna, possibly in the period when the early Harappans were setting up mining colonies like Shortugai. It all falls into place when the Rg-Veda is considered as pre-Harappan. Incidentally, the late appearance of Afghan fauna in the Rg-Veda contradicts an Afghanistan-to-India itinerary, and argues in favour of an India-to-Afghanistan movement during the Rg-Vedic period.

For a very different type of scriptural evidence, Sergent sees a synchronism between the archaeologically attested settlement of Pirak and the beginning of the Puranic chronology, which in his view goes back to the 17th century BC, in "remarkable coincidence" with the florescence of Pirak. (p.223) Reference is in fact to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, which starts a dynastic lists of kings of Kashmir in 1882, i.e. the early 19th century BC. But if Kalhana can be a valid reference, what about Kalhana's dating the Mahabharata war to the 25th century BC? If Puranic history is any criterion, Sergent should realize that its lists of Aryan kings for other parts of India than Kashmir go way beyond 2,000 BC.

Another classic scriptural reference concerns everything relating to the enemies of the Vedic Aryans, such as the "aboriginal" Dasas. Very aptly, Sergent identifies the Dasas and the Panis as Iranian, and the Pakthas (one of the tribes confronting the Vedic king Sudas in the Battle of the Ten Kings) as the Iranian Pathans. (p.241-244) He specifically rejects the common belief that the Dasas were black-skinned, in spite of their occasional description as "black-covered" or "from a black womb", pointing out that even the fair-haired and white-skinned Vikings were called the "black foreigners" by the Irish, with "black" purely used as a metaphor for "evil". (This is even the case in some African languages, for there is no relation between colour symbolism and skin colour: white is the sacred colour to dark-skinned Indian tribals, while black is auspicious to the whitish Japanese, who consider white as the colour of mourning, just as Sanskritic Hindus do.)

Yet, Sergent doesn't identify the said Iranian tribes with the Bronze Age Bactrians, arguing that in Alexander's time, Greek authors locate the Parnoi and Dahai just south of the Aral Lake. But that was almost two thousand years after the heyday of the Bactrian Bronze Age culture and arguably even longer after the Rg-Veda. The only mystery is that these ethnonyms managed to survive that long, not that during those long centuries, they could migrate a few hundred miles to the northwest -- centuries during which we know for fact that the Iranians expanded westward from their Bactrian heartland across rivers and mountains to settle as far west as Mesopotamia.

Moreover, the Vedas locate the confrontations in the prolonged hostility between IndoAryans and Iranians not on the Saraswati (which could in theory be identified as the homonymous Harahvaiti/Helmand in Afghanistan) (p.242), but on the riverside of the Parush-ni/Ravi and other Panjab rivers, unambiguously in India. This is only logical if the Vedic Aryans were based in the Saraswati basin and their Iranian enemies were based in an area to their west near the Khyber pass: they confronted halfway in Panjab. So not only did these Iranian tribes (Dahai, Parnoi) move from Bactria to the Aral Lake area in 2000-300 BC, but they had started moving northwestward centuries earlier, in the Rg-Vedic period, in Panjab.

With every invasionist attempting to strengthen his case by appealing to the testimony of Hindu scripture, the collective failure becomes more glaring.

3.10. Comparison with archaeological reconstruction in Europe

The westward expansion of the Kurgan culture has been mapped with some degree of accuracy: "If an archaeologist is set the problem of examining the archaeological record for a cultural horizon that is both suitably early and of reasonable uniformity to postulate as the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy, then the history of research indicates that the candidate will normally be the Corded Ware culture. At about 3200-2300 BC this Corded Ware horizon is sufficiently early to predate the emergence of any of the specific proto-languages. In addition, it is universally accepted as the common component if not the very basis of the later Bronze Age cultures that are specifically identified with the different proto-languages. Furthermore, its geographical distribution from Holland and Switzerland on the west across northern and central Europe to the upper Volga and middle Dniepr encompasses all those areas which [have been] assigned as the 'homelands' of these European proto-languages."

(J.P. Mallory: In Search of the Indo-Europeans, Hudson & Hudson, London 1989, p.108)

This is a very important insight for understanding the large common (partly pre-IE substratal) element in the European IE languages, distinguishing them collectively from Anatolian, Tocharian and Indo-Iranian: "The study of the lexicon of the Northern European languages, especially Germanic and Baltic, reveals that a large number of terms relevant to the ecology of the habitat of the early populations of the area and to their socio-economic activities have no plausible Indo-European etymology. (...) it is possible to ascribe to the pre-Indo-European substrate in the Baltic area a number of names of plants, animals, objects and activities characteristic of the Neolithic cultures." (Edgar C. Polomé: "The Indo-Europeanization of Northern Europe: the Linguistic Evidence", Journal of Indo-European Studies, fall 1990, p.331-337) Many of these terms also extend to Celtic, Slavic and sometimes Italic and Greek.

Examples include the words barley, Russian bor ("millet"), Latin far ("spelt"); Irish tuath, Gothic thiuda, "people", whence the ethnic names Dutch/Deutsch; German wahr, Latin verus, Old Irish fir, "true"; Latin granum, Dutch koren, English grain and corn; Lithuanian puodas, Germanic fata, whence Dutch vat, "vessel"; Dutch delven, "dig", Old Prussian (Baltic) dalptan, "piercing-tool"; Old Irish land, Old Prussian lindan, Germanic land; Latin alnus (<alisnos), Dutch els, Lithuanian elksnis, "alder", also related to Greek aliza, "white poplar"; Dutch smaak, "taste", Gothic smakka, "fig, tasty fruit", Lithuanian smaguricu, "sweet, treat"; from an ancient form *londhwos, Dutch lenden, Latin lumbus, "waist". Likewise, the Germanic words fish, apple, oak, beech, whale, goat, elm, (n)adder have counterparts in other European languages, e.g. Latin piscis, Old Irish aball, Greek aig-ilops or krat-aigos (possibly related to Berber iksir, Basque eskur, as suggested by Xavier Delamarre: Le Vocabulaire Indo-Européen, Maisonneuve, Paris 1984, p.167), Latin fagus, squalus, haedus, ulmus, natrix; but they have no attested counterparts in the Asian IE languages. Archaeology and linguistics reinforce each other in indicating the existence of a second centre of IE dispersal in the heart of Europe, the Corded Ware culture of ca. 3000 BC, whence most European branches of IE parted for their historical habitats.

Even earlier demographic and cultural movements have been mapped with promising accuracy. The sudden apparition of full-fledged Neolithic culture in the Low Countries in about 5,100 BC can clearly be traced to a gradual expansion of the agricultural civilization through Hungary (5700) and southern Germany (5350 BC), from the Balkans and ultimately from Anatolia. (Pierre Bonenfant & Paul-Louis van Berg: "De eerste bewoners van het toekomstige 'België': een etnische overrompeling", in Anne Morelli ed.: Geschiedenis van het eigen volk, Kritak, Leuven 1993, p.28) It is this gradual spread of agriculture and its concomitant changes in life-style (houses, tools, ceramics, domesticated animals) which the leading archaeologist Colin Renfrew has rashly identified as the indo-europeanization of Europe, but which Marija Gimbutas and many others would consider as the spread of the pre-IE "Old European" culture.

It remains possible that in some outlying regions, the early Indo-Europeans arrived on the scene in time to capture this movement of expanding agriculture, but it did not originate with them, because Anatolia and the Balkans were demonstrably not the IE Urheimat. On the contrary, in the northeastern Mediterranean, the presence of pre-IE elements in the historically attested IE cultures and languages (Greek, Hittite) is very strong, indicating that the Indo-Europeans had to subdue a numerous and self-confident, culturally advanced population. It is this Old European people, known through towns like Catal Hüyük and Vinca, which gradually spread to the northwest and civilized most of Europe before its indo-europeanization.

So, that's archaeology in action. After the wave of agriculture spreading to the farthest corners from the southeast in the 7th-4th millennium BC (linguistically unidentified), the wave of the horse-riding late-Kurganites has been identified as bringing the IE languages. There is as yet no parallel map of a Kurgan-to-India migration. Thus, the material relation between the Andronovo culture in Kazakhstan (often considered as the Indo-Iranians freshly emigrated from the Kurgan area) and the Bactria-Margiana culture (presumed to be the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians on their way to India and Iran) has been established only vaguely, certainly not well enough to claim that the latter was an offshoot of the former (which would support the AIT). As we saw, even tracing a migration from Bactria across the Indus has not succeeded so far.

But then, neither has a reverse migration been mapped archaeologically. If the Bactrian Bronze Age culture was Iranian and the Iranians had earlier been defeated in India, where is the archaeological trail of the Iranians from India to Bactria? And earlier, where is the evidence of Proto-Indo-Europeans on their way from India to the Kurgan area? Those who consider India as the Urheimat of IE should suspend their current triumphalism and take up the challenge.

3.11. Indo-Aryans in West Asia

Another challenge to the Indocentric school has been thrown by Bernard Sergent without his realizing it. On p.206 ff., he adds some new data about the large IE and specifically Indo-Aryan presence in West Asia: Indo-Aryan names are quite common in Syria and Palestine in the 15th-13th century BC, e.g. the Palestian town of Sichem was ruled by one Birishena, i.e. Vira-sena, "the one who has an army of heroes", and Qiltu near Jerusalem was ruled by one Suar-data, i.e. "gift of Heaven"; to Sergent, this also proves that the Indo-Aryans maintained a separate existence after and outside the Mitannic kingdom until at least the 13th century BC.

A fairly serious problem for the non-invasionists in this regard concerns the term Asura: in the Rg-Veda a word for "god" (cfr. Germanic Ase, Aesir), in later Vedic literature a word for "demon", obviously parallel and causally related with the Iranian preference for Asura/Ahura as against the demonized Deva/Daeva, the remaining Hindu term for "god". On p.211 and p.280, Sergent makes the very popular mistake of seeing "the Asuras" as a separate class of gods next to "the Devas". In fact, the distinction and opposition between them is a late-Vedic development connected with the Irano-Indian (or Mazdeic-Vedic) conflict. In the Rg-Veda, Deva and Asura are not two tribes of gods; they are as synonymous as "God" and "Lord" are in Christian parlance.

That state of affairs seems to persist in the Indo-Aryan diaspora in West Asia of the 2nd millennium BC, i.e. long after the completion of the Rg-Veda in the non-invasionist chronology.

Sergent has found quite a few personal names with Asura in West Asia, e.g. the Mitannic general Kart-ashura, the name Biry-ashura attested in Nuzi and Ugarit, in Nuzi also the names Kalm-ashura and Sim-ashura, the Cilician king Shun-ashura, while in Alalakh (Syria), two people were called Ashura and Ashur-atti. (p.210) He explicitly deduces a synchronism between early Vedic and Mitannic-Kassite, which tallies splendidly with the AIT chronology. But in that case, the problem which I am drawing attention to, disappears: of course the West-Asian Indo-Aryans practised a form of the Vedic religion consistent with the early Vedic data, because theirs was the early Vedic age. And that is why Sergent doesn't see the problem which arises when the wild non-invasionist chronology is accepted: if two millennia have passed between the Rg-Vedic seers and the said testimony of an Indo-Aryan presence in West Asia, how is it possible that these West-Asian Indo-Aryans have missed the late-Vedic developments which turned the revered Asuras into demons?

At present, this problem for the non-invasionists can only be solved at the level of hypothesis. It is perfectly possible, even if not yet attested archaeologically or literarily, that along with the Iranians, a purely Indo-Aryan-speaking group emigrated from India in the Rg-Vedic period to seek its fortune in the Far West. Perhaps it is from them that Uralic speakers borrowed the term Asura, "lord", along with Sapta, "seven, week", Sasar, "sister", and a few other Indo-Aryan words. Some of these Indo-Aryans, organized as bands of warrior, engineered the conquests of their Mitannic and Kassite host populations. Considering that Vedic names are still given to Hindu children today, thousands of years after Vedic Sanskrit went out of daily use, and often in communities which speak a non-Indo-Aryan language, it is conceivable that the Indo-Aryans in West Asia managed to preserve their Vedic tradition from the time of their emigration from India during the Vedic age until the mid-2nd millennium BC. And if so, they had to preserve it in the form it had at the time of their emigration, i.c. complete with the veneration for Asura, the Lord.

A related problem concerns the Kassites, who were also Indo-Aryan to a extent. Non-in-vasionists have made much of the presence of Sanskrit names in the Kassite dynasty in Babylon. However, we have information from Semitic Mesopotamians about the Kassite language, and it was not Indo-Aryan. A number of known Kassite words are apparently unrelated to any known language, e.g. mashu, "god"; yanzi, "king"; saribu, "foot". They also seem to have a formation of the plural unknown in IE, viz. with an infix, e.g. sirpi, sirpami, "brown one(s)", or minzir, minzamur, "dotted one(s)". (Wilfred van Soldt: "Het Kassitisch", Phoenix, Leiden 1998, p.90-93) Assuming that the language described as "Kassite" and located by the Babylonian sources in the hills east of Mesopotamia was indeed the language of the Kassite dynasty (for language names sometimes change referent), does this not refute the Indian connection of the Kassites?

No: this state of affairs suggests a third scenario, viz. that a non-IE population in Iran used Sanskrit names referring to Vedic gods. This would be the same situation as in the Dravidian provinces: a non-IE-speaking population maintains its own language but adopts Sanskritic lore and nomenclature. It would mean that Vedic culture had spread as much to the west as we know it has spread to the east and south, and that a part of western Iran (well before its iranianization) was as much part of Greater India as Kerala or Bali became in later centuries.

4. Linguistic arguments

4.1. East-Asian influences

Bernard Sergent traces practically all Indian language families to foreign origins. He confirms the East-Asian origins of both the Tibeto-Burmese languages (Lepcha, Naga, Mizo etc.) and the Austro-Asiatic languages (Santal, Munda, Khasi etc.). Though many tribals in central and southern India are the biological progeny of India's oldest human inhabitants, their adopted languages are all of foreign origin. To Sergent, this is true of not only Austro-Asiatic and Indo-Aryan, but also of Dravidian.

The Himalayan branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, distinct from Tibetan, already has a very long but inconspicuous presence in northern India. Originating in China, this group of now very small languages once embraced parts of the northern plains. Of greater historical importance is the Austro-Asiatic family, which Sergent describes as once the predominant one in a continuous area from central India to Vietnam, but now reduced to a series of pockets in between the riverine population centres dominated by the immigrant Thai and Tibeto-Burmese languages (originating in China) and in India by the Indo-Aryan languages.

Sergent is merely following in others' footsteps when he assumes that mayura, "peacock", gaja, "elephant", karpasa, "cotton", and other Sanskrit fauna or flora terms are loans from Austro-Asiatic. (p.370) In most such cases, the only ground for this assumption is that similar-sounding words exist in the Munda languages of Chotanagpur, languages which have not been committed to writing before the 19th century. Chances are that in the intervening millennia, when these words were attested in Sanskrit but not necessarily in Munda, they were borrowed from Indo-Aryan ino Munda, or from an extinct language into both. At any rate, the hypothesis of an Austro-Asiatic origin should only be accepted in case the term is also attested in non-Indian branches such as Khmer.

The alleged loans only start appearing in the 10th and youngest book of the Rg-Veda and really break through in the Brahmanas. Sergent follows the classical interpretation, viz. that this shows how the Vedic Aryans gradually moved east, encountering the Austro-Asiatic speakers in the Ganga basin. While I am not convinced of the existence of more than a few Munda terms in Sanskrit (more in the adjoining Indo-Aryans Prakrits: Hindi, Bengali, Oriya), I would agree that there are other Munda influences, notably in mythology, as we shall discuss separately. Non-invasionists will have to account for this Munda contribution.

Here too, I suggest that chronology is all-important. It is quite possible that Munda had not arrived in India at the time of the Rg-Veda. When the Harappans migrated eastward (as demographically expansive populations do), or when the post-Harappans fled eastward from the disaster area which the Indus-Saraswati basin had become, the Munda-speaking people they encountered in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar may have been recent immigrants from the agricultural civilization of what is now Thailand and southwestern China. All the same, it remains possible that for local flora and fauna, the Indo-Aryans did adopt some Munda terminology.

Broadly, the Austro-Asiatic expansion can be compared with the gradual spread of the Old European Neolithic from Anatolia and the Balkans to the far corners of Europe, and with the spread of India's Northwestern Neolithic to the rest of the subcontinent. In that case, the Munda-speaking farmers in the eastern Ganga basin must have assimilated into the Indo-Aryan population, with only the peripheral populations in the hills retaining their imported languages. This Munda contribution is by no means incompatible with a native status of IE.

4.2. Is Dravidian native to India?

In one of his most innovative chapters, Sergent reviews all the evidence of Dravido-African and Dravido-Uralic kinship. In African languages spoken in the entire Sahel belt, from Sudan to Senegal, numerous semantic and grammatical elements are found which also exist in Dravidian. The similarity with the Uralic languages (Finnish, Hungarian, Samoyedic) is equally pronounced. Sergent offers the hypothesis that at the dawn of the Neolithic Revolution, some 10,000 years ago, the Dravidians left the Sudan, one band splitting off in Iran to head north to the Urals, the others entering India and moving south.

Within this scenario of a Dravidian immigration, it is tempting to speculate that upon entering India, the Dravidians first of all founded the Indus civilization. Surprisingly, Sergent rejects this otherwise popular hypothesis, on the impeccably rational ground that there is no evidence for it. Thus, except in coastal Sindh and Gujarat, geographical terms in the Indus-Saraswati area are never of Dravidian origin. There is also no continuity in material culture between Harappan culture and the oldest known Dravidian settlements.

True to scholarly norms, Sergent pleads for a provisional acceptance of our ignorance about the identity of the Harappans. However, as a concession to impatient readers who insist on having some theory at least, he gives one or two very slender indications that the Burushos (who preserve their Burushaski language till today in Hunza, Pak-Occupied Kashmir) may have played a role in it. (p.138) However, he finds no Burushaski lexical influence on Indo-Aryan except possibly the word sinda, "river", connected in one direction or the other with Sanskrit Sindhu, "river, Indus", not otherwise attested in IE. (Remark that the Iranian name Hindu for "Indus", hence also for "India", indicates that the Iranians have lived near the Indus. If they had not, then Sindhu would have been a foreign term which they would have left intact, just as they kept the Elamite city name Susa intact rather than evolving it to Huha or something like that; but because Sindhu was part of their own vocabulary, it followed the evolution of Iranian phonetics to become Hindu.)

Sergent is also skeptical of David MacAlpin's thesis of an "Elamo-Dravidian" language family: what isoglosses there are between Elamite and Dravidian can be explained sufficiently through contact rather than common origin.

Like many others, Sergent suggests that the early Dravidians can be equated with the "southern Neolithic" of 2500-1600 BC. Their round huts with wooden framework are the direct precursors of contemporary rural Dravidian housing. Two types of Hindu vessel have been discovered in southern Neolithic sites, including a beaked copper recipient still used in Vedic fire ceremonies. (p.48, with reference to Bridget and Raymond Allchin and to Dharma Pal Agrawal) Though the prehistory of the southern Neolithic is difficult to trace, it can be stated with confidence that the best candidate is the Northwestern Neolithic, which started in Mehrgarh in the 8th millennium BC. It is, by contrast, very unlikely that it originated as an outpost of the Southeast-Asian Neolithic, which expanded into India at a rather late date, bringing the Austro-Asiatic languages. According to Sergent, a link with the mature Harappan civilization is equally unlikely: neither in material culture nor in physical type is such a link indicated by the evidence. The Dravidians were certainly already in the Deccan when the mature Harappan civilization started. Sergent suggests that the Dravidians formed a pre-Harappan population in Sindh and Gujarat, and that they were overwhelmed and assimilated, not by the invading Aryans, but by the mature-Harappan population. (p.52)

The picture which emerges is that of a multi-lingual Indus-Saraswati civilization with Dravidian as the minor partner (possibly preserved or at least leaving its mark in the southern metropolis of Mohenjo Daro) who ended up getting assimilated by the major partner, a non-Dravidian population whom we may venture to identify as Indo-Iranian and ultimately Indo-Aryan.

4.3. Afro-Dravidian kinship

One of the most remarkable findings related in some detail by Bernard Sergent, on the basis of three independent studies (by Lilias Homburger, by Tidiane Ndiaye, and by U.P. Upadhyaya and Mrs. S.P. Upadhyaya) reaching similar conclusions, is the multifarious kinship of the Dravidian language family with African languages of the Sahel belt, from Somalia to Senegal (Peul, Wolof, Mandé, Dyola). As Sergent notes, all Melano-African languages have been credibly argued to be related, with the exception of the Khoi-San and Korama languages of southern Africa and the Afro-Asiatic family of northern Africa; so the kinship of Dravidian would be with that entire Melano-African superfamily, though it would be more conspicuous with some of its members.

Thus, between Dravidian and Bantu, we find the same verbal endings for the infinitive, the subjunctive, the perfect, the active participle or nomen agentis, related postpositions or nominal case endings, and many others. In over-all structure, Dravidian and the Melano-African languages (as distinct from North-African and Khoi-San languages) form a pair when compared with other language families: "The tendency to agglutination, the absence of grammatical gender, the absence of internal vowel change, the use of pre- or postpositions instead of flection are some of the main traits which set the Negro-African and Dravidian languages jointly apart from the Indo-European and Hamito-Semitic groups." (p.55) Here I would say that this doesn't prove much: the first trait is shared with some more, and the other ones are shared with most language families on earth; it is IE and Semito-Hamitic which stand out jointly by not having these traits.

That Hamito-Semitic (Afro-Asiatic) and IE stand jointly apart and may have a common origin in Mesopotamia, has been argued by B. Sergent himself (Les Indo-Européens, p.431-434). Critics such as the reviewer in Antaios 10, Brussels 1996, have suggested that with this position, he is playing a political game. This much is true, that by design or by accident, Sergent is pulling the leg of far-rightist adepts of IE studies who consider the reduction of IE to sisterhood with Semitic as sacrilege. All the same, his position is quite sound linguistically.

But between Melano-African and Dravidian, there are more specific similarities: "A simple system of five basic vowels with an opposition short/long, vocalic harmony, absence of consonant clusters in initial position, abundance of geminated consonants, distinction between inclusive and exclusive pronoun in the first person plural, absence of the comparative degree in adjectives, absence of adjectives and adverbs acting as distinct morphological categories, alternation of consonants or augmentation of nouns noted among the nouns of different classes, distinction between accomplished and unaccomplished action in the verbal paradigms as opposed to the distinction of time-specific tenses, separate sets of paradigms for the affirmative and negative forms of verbs, the use of reduplicated forms for the emphatic mode, etc." (Genèse de l'Inde, p.55)

Sergent himself adds more isoglosses: "Preference for open syllables (i.e. those ending in vowels), the rejection of clusters of non-identical consonants, the generally initial position of the word accent in Dravidian and in the languages of Senegal". (p.56) The similarity in the demonstrative affixes is among the most striking: proximity is indicated by [i], initial in Dravidian but terminal in Wolof; distance by [a], intermediate distance by [u].

Knowing little of Dravidian and nothing at all of African languages, I don't feel qualified to discuss this evidence. However, I do note that we have several separate studies by unrelated researchers, using different samples of languages in their observations, and that each of them lists large numbers of similarities, not just in vocabulary, but also in linguistic structure, even in its most intimate features. Thus, "the preposed demonstratives of Dravidian allow us to comprehend the genesis of the nominal classes, the fundamental trait of the Negro-African languages". (p.53)

To quite an extent, this evidence suggests that Dravidian and some of the African languages (the case has been made in most detail for the Senegalo-Guinean languages such as Wolof) have a common origin. At the distance involved, it is unlikely that the isoglosses noted are the effects of borrowing. Either way, Proto-Dravidian must have been geographically close to the ancestor-language of the Negro-African languages. Did it come from Africa, as Sergent concludes? Should we think of a lost Saharan culture which disappeared before the conquests of the desert? Note that earlier outspoken fans of Dravidian culture (e.g. Father H. Heras: Studies in Proto-Indo-Meditarranean Culture, 1953, and Alain Daniélou: Histoire de l'Inde, 1983) didn't mind describing the Dravidians as immigrants: unlike the Aryans, they were bringers rather than destroyers of civilization, but they were immigrants nonetheless. Or should we follow Tamil chauvinists in assuming that the Dravidians came from Tamil Nadu and the now-submerged lands to its south, and took their language and civilization to Africa?

4.4. Additional indications for Afro-Dravidian

Bernard Sergent argues against the Indian origin of Dravidian. One element to consider is that the members of the Dravidian family have not diverged very much from one another. The relative closeness of its members suggests that they started growing apart only fairly recently: a thousand years for Tamil and Malayalam (well-attested), perhaps three thousand for the divergence of North- from South-Dravidian. This would indicate that Dravidian was still a single language covering a small area in the early Harappan period, after having entered the country from the West.

That the "genealogical tree" of the Dravidian family seems to have its trunk in the coastal West of India, i.e. to the northwest of the main Dravidian area, has long been recognized by scholars of Dravidian. A map showing this "tree" is given in G. John Samuel, ed.: Encyclopedia of Tamil Literature, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras 1990, p.45, with reference to Kamil Zvelebil, who locates the Proto-Dravidians in Iran as late as 3500 BC. It also fits in with the old Brahminical nomenclature, which includes Gujarat and Maharashtra in the Pancha-Dravida, the "five Dravida areas of Brahminical settlement" (as contrasted with Pancha-Gauda, the five North-Indian ones). The northwestern coast was the first part of India to be dravidianized, the wellspring of Dravidian migration to the south, but also an area were Dravidian was gradually displaced by Indo-Aryan though not without influencing it.

Another indication for the Dravidian presence in Gujarat is the attestation in Gujarati Jain texts of inter-cousin marriage, typically South-Indian and quite non-Indo-European. (p.51) The IE norm was very strict in prohibiting even distant forms of incest, a norm adopted by both Hinduism and Christianity. Linguists had already pointed out, and Sergent confirms, that Dravidian has left its mark on the Sindhi, Gujarati and Marathi languages (as with the distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural) and toponymy. So, it is fairly well-established that Dravidian culture had a presence in Gujarat while spreading to South India.

It is possible that Gujarat was a waystation in a longer Dravidian migration from further west. Whether the itinerary of Dravidian can ultimately be traced to Sudan or thereabouts, remains to be confirmed, but Sergent already has some interesting data to offer in support. Africans and Dravidians had common types of round hut, common music instruments, common forms of snake worship and tree worship. A South-Indian board game pallankuli closely resembles the African game mancalal; varieties of the game are attested in Pharaonic Egypt and in a pre-Christian monastery in Sri Lanka. (p.59)

A point which I do not find entirely convincing is the distinction, based on Mircea Eliade's research, between two types of Shamanism, one best known from Siberia and in evidence among all people originating in North and East Asia including the Native Americans and the Indian Munda-speaking tribes, another best known from Africa but also attested among some South-Indian tribes. (p.62) This is a distinction between Shamanism properly speaking, in which the Shaman makes spirit journeys, despatches one of his multiple souls to the spirit world to help the soul of a sick person, etc.; and the religion of ghost-possession, in which the sorcerer allows the ghost to take him over but at the same time makes him obey. The latter is perhaps best known to outsiders through the Afro-Caribbean Voodoo religion, but is also in evidence among South-Indian tribals such as the Saora and the Pramalai Kallar.

If anthropologists have observed these two distinct types, I will not disbelieve them. It does not follow that there must be a link between Africa and South India: Sergent himself notes that the same religion of ghost-possession is attested among the Australian aboriginals, who may be related with the Veddoid substratum in India's population. (p.62) On the other hand, this theme of ghost-possession is but one of Sergent's numerous linguistic and anthropological data which all point in the same direction of Afro-Dravidian kinship.

4.5. Uralic-Dravidian kinship

If Dravidian migrated from Africa to India through the Middle East, it could have left traces in Egypt and countries under Egyptian influence as well, explaining the data which led earlier researchers to the thesis of a Dravidian "Indo-Mediterranean" culture, most influentially Father H. Heras: Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture, 1953. Sergent links Indian forms of phallus worship with Sahel-African, Ethiopian, Egyptian and Mediterranean varieties of the same. The Egyptian uraeus ("cobra"), the snake symbol on the pharaonic regalia, has been linked in detail with Dravidian forms of snake worship, including the priest's possession by the snake's spirit. Dravidian cremation rituals for dead snakes recall the ceremonial burial of snakes in parts of Africa. Others have added the similarity between the Dravidian nâga-kal (Tamil: "snake-stone", a rectangular stone featuring two snakes facing one another, their bodies intertwined) and the intertwined snakes in the caduceus, the Greek symbol of science and medicine.

It has consequently been suggested that some Dravidian words may also have penetrated into the European languages. Thus, Dravidian kal, "stone", resembles Latin calculus, "pebble", and Dravidian malai, "mountain", resembles an Albanian and Rumanian word mal, "rock, rocky riverside". (Sorin Paliga: "Proto-Indo-European, Pre-Indo-European, Old European", Journal of Indo-European Studies, fall 1989, p.309-334) But this hypothesis is a long shot and we need not pursue it here.

Far more substantial is the Dravidian impact on another language family far removed from the present Dravidian speech area, viz. Uralic. The influence pertains to a very sizable vocabulary, including core terms for hand, fire, house (Finnish kota, Tamil kudi), talk, cold, bathe, die, water, pure, see, knock, be mistaken, exit, fear, bright, behind, turn, sick, dirty, ant, strong, little, seed, cut, wait, fish (Hungarian men, Tamil min) tongue, laugh, moist, break, chest, tree; some pronouns, several numerals and dozens of terms for body parts. (p.66-67) But it goes deeper than that. Thus, both language families exclude voiced and aspirated consonants and all consonant clusters at the beginning of words. They have in common several suffixes, expressions and the phonological principle of vocalic harmony.

As the Dravidian influence, like that of IE, is more pronounced in the Finno-Ugric than in the Samoyedic branch, we may surmise that the contact took place after the separation of the Samoyedic branch. But the main question here is how Dravidian could have influenced Uralic given their actual distance. Sergent suggests that a lost branch of Dravidians on the way from Africa strayed into Central Asia and got assimilated but not without influencing their adopted language.

On the other hand, he rejects the theory that Dravidian forms one family along with Uralic, Turkic, Mongolian and Tunguz. The latter three are often grouped as "Altaic", a partly genetic and partly areal group which may also include Korean and Japanese, and all the said languages including Japanese have at one time or another been claimed as relatives of Dravidian, with which they do present some isoglosses. However, the isoglosses are fragmentary and mostly different ones for every language group concerned. Moreover, some Dravidian influences are also discernible in Tocharian, or Arshi-Kuchi (Tocharian A c.q. Tocharian B) as Sergent appropriately calls it, which is obviously a matter of influence through contact. So Sergent concludes that this is a matter of areal influence rather than genetic kinship: Dravidian was a foreign language entering Central Asia at some point in time to briefly exert an influence on the local languages before disappearing. (p.71-76) This goes against a fairly popular theory locating Dravidian origins in Central Asia whence a Dravidian immigration preceded the Aryans one.

I am not sure this will convince everyone: if Dravidian is not genetically linked with all the said language groups, it might still be so with one of them, viz. Uralic, at least on the strength of the data Sergent offers. Tamil chauvinists may well be tempted to complete the picture by claiming that before the Indo-Europeans from India colonized Central Asia and Europe, it was the turn of the Dravidians to colonize Central Asia and, after mixing genetically and linguistically with the natives, to develop the Uralic languages. At a time when subtropical Neolithic cultures had a tremendous technological and demographical edge over the hunter-gatherers in the inhospitable northern countries, it would not even be so far-fetched to imagine that a small wayward group of Dravidians could enter the vast expanse of Central Asia and completely change the linguistic landscape there.

At any rate, Sergent's observations represent a clean break with earlier theories which had the Dravidians originate in the Uralic speech area and preceding the Indo-Aryans in an invasion of India from Central Asia.

4.5. Geographical distribution of IE languages

Since Bernard Sergent doesn't take the Indocentric case for IE seriously, he doesn't bring out all the linguistic data which to him support the Kurgan scenario. One classical argument from linguistics is nonetheless developed at some length: "In Europe one finds the most numerous and geographically most concentrated IE language groups. Such a situation is not unique, and invariably denotes the direction of history: the Indo-Iranian languages represent a branch extended to the east and south, starting from Europe and not the other way around. It is obviously not the IE languages of Europe which have come from India". (p.29-30)

This early in his book (p.30 of 584 pp.), he is already so sure that "obviously" the central question of the Urheimat has been decided to the disadvantage of India. That is a great pity, for it is the reason why he has not applied himself to really developing the argument against the Indian Urheimat. If anyone is capable of proving the AIT, it must be Sergent. Yet, because he assumes no proof is necessary, he gives the question much less attention than

e.g. the much less contentious (though more original) question of the geographical origins ofDravidian.

To be sure, the pattern of language distribution invoked by Sergent as "not unique", is indeed well-attested, e.g. in sub-Saharan West Africa, there are about 15 language families, while in the much larger region of sub-equatorial Africa, a very large majority of the people speaks languages belonging to only one family, Bantu. Though it is only a branch of a subfamily of the Niger-Kordofanian language family, Bantu easily outnumbers all the other branches of this family combined: "Africanists conclude that Bantu originated in a small area, on the border between Nigeria and Cameroon." (p.30)

But in fact, India is in this respect more akin to West Africa, and Europe more to subequatorial Africa. India has more language families: Nahali, Andamanese, Burushaski, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic (Munda and Mon-Khmer), Sino-Tibetan (Himalayan, Tibetic and Burmese) and IE (Iranian, Kafir, Dardic, Indo-Aryan, and possibly proto-Bangani). Europe is almost entirely IE-speaking, with Basque serving as the European counterpart to the Khoi-San languages in subequatorial Africa, a left-over of the original linguistic landscape largely replaced with the conquering newcomer, IE c.q. Bantu; and Uralic (Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian) a fellow if perhaps slightly later intruder in the European landscape, vaguely comparable to the intrusion of an Austronesian language in a part (viz. Madagascar) of southern Africa.

Therefore, I reject the argument from the geographical distribution. If the spread of the IE languages to Europe was often a matter of assimilating divergent native populations, this process promoted the speedy diverging of the IE dialects into distinct language groups. Though this is not a conclusive argument against the possibility of IE settlement in Indian being younger than in Europe, it at least terminates the impression that there was a compelling case in favour of that possibility. So, even under Bernard Sergent's hands, the fabled "linguistic evidence" has failed to decide the IE Urheimat question once and for all.

5. The evidence from comparative religion

5.1. Aryan contributions to indigenous culture

Unlike most invasionists, who minimize the IE contribution by seeing "pre-Aryan" origins behind every (post-Harappan) Hindu cultural item, Sergent admits the IE origin of numerous elements of Hinduism usually classified as remnants of earlier populations. This is one of the most elaborate and original sections in his book.

In invasionist sources, and more so in politicized writings against the "Aryan invader religion" Hinduism, it is claimed that the two most popular gods, Vishnu and Shiva, are (the former partly, the latter wholly) sanskritized pre-Aryan indigenous gods. Sergent argues that they are in fact neat counterparts of IE gods attested in distant parts of the IE language domain, Vishnu corresponding to the Germanic god Vidar, Shiva to the Greek and Thracian and Phrygian god Dionysos and to an extent also to the Celtic god Dagda. (p.310, p.402) He notices the puzzling fact that the classical Shiva is unattested in the Vedas (though Shiva's persona includes some elements from Indra, Rudra and Agni who are not counterparts of Dionysos); so he suggests that the Shiva tradition, definitely part of the common IE heritage, was passed on through a Vratya or non-Vedic Indo-Aryan circle. (p.323-324) This is an important acknowledgment of the fact that the Vedic tradition is only one tradition in the Indo-Aryan religious landscape, a key element in Shrikant Talageri's reconstruction of ancient Indian history (The Aryan Invasion Theory, a Reappraisal, Ch.14): just as Sanskrit is not the mother of all Indo-Aryan languages (rather an aunt), the Vedas are not the wellspring of the whole of Hindu tradition.

Sergent goes into great detail in showing how the IE trifunctionality model does apply throughout the Vedic and Puranic worldview, in fact far more splendidly than in any other IE culture. (p.252-278) Thus, the first function is juridical-religious and corresponds with sattva, the transparent and truthful quality in the Hindu triguna or three-qualities model; the second function is martial-political and corresponds with rajas, the passionate and energetic quality; the third function is production and consumption, corresponding with tamas, the quality of materiality and ignorance. This threesome also corresponds with the trivarga ("three categories") model, where dharma or religious duty is sattvik, artha or striving for worldly success is rajasik, kama or sensuous enjoyment is tamasik, though there is a fourth (nirguna, "quality-less") dimension, viz. moksha, liberation. Likewise for the three states of consciousness: dreaming, waking, sleeping, surpassed by "fourth state", turiya, the yogic state. This scheme can then be applied to the Hindu pantheon, e.g. Brahma the creator is rajasik, Vishnu the maintainer is sattvik, Shiva the dissolver is tamasik; or the white mountain goddess Parvati is sattvik, the tiger goddess Durga rajasik, the black devouring goddess Kali tamasik.

Many more IE elements in Hinduism could be cited to the same effect, such as the numerous correspondences in epic motifs between Hindu and European sagas, which Sergent discusses at length. But the interesting ones for our purpose are those which already existed in the Harappan civilization.

5.2. The linga

Dr. Sergent goes quite far in indo-europeanizing the alleged aboriginal contribution to Hinduism. He even asserts that "the linga (or Shiva's phallus) cult is of IE origin". (p.139) An important detail is that Aryan linga worshippers venerated the linga by itself, not in the linga-yoni combination common in Hindu shrines, for "the yoni cult is without IE parallel". (p.139) Sergent makes a distinction between the sculpted stone phallus and the unsculpted variety. The first type is attested in the Harappan area and period, as well as in Africa and the Mediterranean, while the second type is common in historical and contemporary Hinduism. However, on linga worship in the Harappan cities, we find conflicting presentations of the facts, with Sergent assuming that the same Mediterranean-type phallus worship flourished, while no less a scholar than Asko Parpola claims the exact opposite. Parpola (Deciphering the Indus Script, p.221) contrasts the "earliest historical (1st-2nd century BC) lingas", which are "realistic", with the "abstract form of the Harappan conical stones". If Parpola is right, the Harappan linga cult was more akin to the classical Hindu form than to Mediterranean phallus worship. However, the crucial point of comparison in this case is not Harappa but the Indian tribals.

Votaries of the Indo-Mediterranean school claim that the cult of phallus-shaped stones is unknown among the indigenous (though in many cases historically dravidianized) tribal populations of India, implying that the Dravidian immigrants brought it from abroad, first to the Indus Valley, next to the whole of India. The same claim, that the untainted tribals are unattracted to the urban Hindu depravity of phallus-worship, has often been made by Christian missionaries as an argument in support of their doctrine that "tribals are not Hindus". But is this true?

First of all, many Indian tribals do practise linga worship. Pupul Jayakar (The Earth Mother, Penguin 1989/1980, p.30) situates both Shiva and the linga within the culture of a number of tribes, e.g. the Gonds: "There are, in the archaic Gond legend of Lingo Pen, intimations of an age when Mahadeva or Shiva, the wild and wondrous god of the autochthons, had no human form but was a rounded stone, a lingam, washed by the waters of the river Narmada. Even to this day there are areas of the Narmada river basin where every stone in the waters is said to be a Shiva lingam: '(...) What was Mahadev doing? He was swimming like a rolling stone, he had no hands, no feet. He remained like the trunk (of a tree).' [Then, Bhagwan makes him come out of the water and grants him a human shape.]" Till today, Shiva or a corresponding tribal god is often venerated in the shape of such natural-born, unsculpted, longish but otherwise shapeless stones.

At the same time, female yoni symbols are common enough among Indian tribals, esp. inverted triangles, the origin of the Hindu plural-triangle symbols called yantra, venerated in such seats of orthodoxy as the Shankaracharya Math in Kanchipuram, where celibacy is the rule and thoughts of fertility unwelcome. In a palaeolithic site in the Siddhi district of Madhya Pradesh (10th or 9th millennium BC), a Mother Goddess shrine has been found containing well-known Hindu symbols: squares, circles, swastikas and most of all, triangles. (Pupul Jayakar: The Earth Mother, p.20-22) A participant in an excavation in Bastar (Jan Van Alphen, of the Etnografisch Museum, Antwerp) told me of how a painted triangular stone was dug up, and the guide, a Gond tribal, at once started doing puja before this ancient idol. Such is the continuity of indigenous Indian religion across eleven thousand years.

However, these two-dimensional triangles constitute a different symbolism from the three-dimensional ring-shaped or oval-shaped sculpted yoni symbols used in the linga-yoni combination. Sergent sees these sculpted yoni symbols as part of the Dravidian tradition with African links, while the triangles, like the unsculpted linga stones, might be older in India than even the Dravidian invasion as imagined by Sergent.

Quite separate from these abstract triangles and unsculpted stones, explicit sexual imagery is also common among the "untainted" tribals: "When the Bhils, primitive people of western India, paint their sacred pithoras, they include in an obscure corner a copulating man and woman. When asked to explain, they say, 'without this, where would the world be?'" (Pupul Jayakar: The Earth Mother, p.36) When they want to express the fertility process, they do so quite explicitly, and they don't have to make do with a shapeless stone. Conversely, when they do choose to use a shapeless stone, it must be for a different purpose. Therefore, it is logical that the tribal linga cannot be equated with the sexually explicit sculptures of the ancient Mediterranean cultures.

Like the tribals, Vedic Hindus worship unsculpted lingas without explicit sexual connotation. Most Hindus will reject the Western interpretation of their idol as a phallic symbol, and the quoted details of tribal linga worship tend to prove their point, as would the abstract uses of the term linga ("sign", "proof", one of the terms in a syllogism, and symbol of the nirguna/undefined primeval reality; for a serious discussion of the profound meanings of linga worship, see Swami Karpatri & Alain Daniélou: Le mystère du culte du linga, Ed. du Relié, Robion 1993). The pebbles picked up from the Narmada river are hardly phallus-shaped, in contrast to the phallic pillars in the Mediterranean.

When Hindus object to the purely sexual reading of their symbols by Western authors, the latter, irritated with the "refusal of prudish Indian hypocrites to face facts", retort that "after all, anyone can see that this is explicit sexual imagery". Or for a more academic variation: "The Brahmans succeeded in concealing the alcoholic and sexual-orgiastic character of the adoration of the phallus (lingam or linga) and transformed it into a pure ritualistic temple cult", according to Max Weber: The Religion of India, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi 1992 (ca. 1910), p.298.

Clearly, both conflicting interpretations have their validity, and linga worship in India is probably a syncretic phenomenon. If "phallus worship" was scorned in the Rg Veda (in the much-discussed verses where the enemies are abused as shishna-devâh, "those who have the phallus for god", Rg-Veda 7:21:5 and 10:99:3.), we do not perforce have to deny, as most anti-AIT authors do, that this concerned non-Aryan people who worshipped phallic stones. There were non-Aryans in many parts of India, though these phallus worshippers may equally have been Indo-Aryan-speaking cultists. We have at any rate a testimony for an ancient religious dispute. A clue has perhaps been given in Sergent's information that the lone linga ("objects which are interpreted as phalli", p.139; emphasis added) has been found in the northern half of the Indus-Saraswati civilization, the yoni-linga couple with ring-shaped yoni stones in its arguably Dravidian south.

Anyway, the point for now is that the alleged tribal and Vedic Aryan forms of linga worship are very similar. If this linga worship was IE, as Sergent claims, and if it is an age-old Indian tribal tradition at the same time, may I suggest that the Indo-Europeans discovered or developed it in India itself? Could this be an instance of what should at present be the Holy Grail of non-invasionist researchers, viz. a case of decided continuity between native tribal and IE cultures, distinguishing both together from imported cultures such as that of the Dravidians?

5.3. Harappan and Vedic fire cult

Most invasionist accounts of Hindu history acknowledge that classical Hinduism has included elements from the "Indus civilization". Thus, the unique water-supply system in the Indus-Saraswati system and the public baths so visibly similar to the bathing kunds still existing in numerous Indian cities have been interpreted as early witnesses to the Hindu "obsession" with purity. Though open to correction on details, this approach is not controversial. However, it runs into difficulties when items are discovered which are not typical for the Indian IE-speaking culture alone, but for the whole or larger parts of the IE-speaking family of cultures: how could these have been present in Harappa when the IE contribution was only brought in during or after Harappa's downfall by the Aryan invaders?

The bathing culture which the Harappans shared with the later Hindus is often cited as a pre-IE remnant which crept into Hinduism. However, this is also attested (with local differences, of course) among such IE tribes as the Romans and the Germanic people, and may therefore be part of the common IE heritage. Of course, a general concern about cleanliness is not a very specific and compelling type of evidence. More decisive would be a case like the famous Harappan seal depicting the so-called Pashupati (Shiva as Lord of Beasts), long considered proof that the Shiva cult is indigenous and non-Aryan. It is found to have a neat counterpart, to the detail, in the horned god Cernunnos surrounded by animals (largely similar ones and in the same order as on the Pashupati seal) on the Celtic Gundestrup cauldron made in central Europe sometime in the last centuries BC. So, this Harappan motif may well be part of the common IE heritage.

For another very general trait, the absence of distinct temple buildings in the Harappan cities constitutes a defect in the AIT postulate of a Vedic-Harappan cultural opposition. The fact that no temples are attested is a common trait of Harappa, of some ancient IE cultures (Vedic, Celtic, Germanic), and of that other acclaimed centre of Aryanism, the South Russian Kurgan culture, where "no real sanctuaries have ever been found; they probably had open sanctuaries" (M. Gimbutas: "Proto-Indo-European Culture: The Kurgan Culture during the Fifth, Fourth and Third Millennia BC", in George Cardona et al., eds.: Indo-European and Indo-Europeans, p.191). It contrasts with Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures and with the bhakti cult in later Hinduism, which venerates the deity as if it were a human person and consequently gives the deity a house to live in: a temple. Harappans, Vedic Aryans, many ancient IE-speaking Europeans and contemporary Indian tribals have this in common: they worship without temple buildings.

For a more specific example: fire plays a central role in most historically attested IE religions, most emphatically in the Indo-Iranian branches. A fire-cult was present in the Indus-Saraswati civilization, and it resembled the practices of the Vedic people. The presence of Vedic fire-altars in several Harappan cities (Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi) has been noticed by a number of authors, but is somehow always explained away or ignored. Parpola ("The coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethnic identity of the Dasas", Studia Orientalia, Helsinki 1988, p.238) admits as "quite plausible" the suggestion (made to him by Raymond and Bridget Allchin) that they form an Indo-Aryan element within Harappan civilization, but he explains them as imported by "carriers of the Bronze Age culture of Greater Iran, who had become quickly absorbed into the Indus Civilization, culturally and linguistically".

Likewise, Sergent admits that "the Indian Vedic fire altar seemed to have borrowed its construction principles from the Indus civilization", all while "the very idea of the fire cult was Indo-Iranian". (p.161) This falls neatly into place if we equate proto-Harappan with Indo-Iranian: the idea of a fire cult was taken along by the emigrating Iranians, while the Indo-Aryans stayed on in the Indus-Saraswati region to develop their altars' distinct Indian style of construction.

At any rate, how deeply had these Aryan fire-worshippers not penetrated the Harappan civilization, that they had installed their altars in patrician mansions of three of the largest Harappan cities, all three moreover very far from the northwestern border? If they were imported from outside, it rather seems they came from the east, which would bring us back to Shrikant Talageri's thesis that IE originated in the Ganga basin and entered the Harappan area from there. Leaving aside this question of ultimate origins, the very fact of the Vedic fire-altars in the Indus-Saraswati culture is a serious problem for the AIT.

5.4. More on Harappan vs. Vedic

The stellar cult is common to the Harappan and Vedic religions. This is explained by Asko Parpola as the effect of borrowing: the barbarian invaders adopting the religion of the empire they just conquered, somewhat like the Heathen Germanic tribes did when they conquered the Christian Roman empire. In fact, the whole of Vedic and core-Puranic literature has been explained as essentially translations of non-Aryan Harappan traditions.

A similar explanation is given for the "soma filter", often depicted on Harappan seals, and of which an ivory specimen has been discovered by J.M. Kenoyer's team. Iravathan Mahadevan (interviewed by Omar Khan, Chennai, 17-1-1998, on http://www.harappa.com/script/mahadevantext.html) proposes that "the mysterious cult object that you find before the unicorn on the unicorn seals is a filter. (...) Since we know that the unicorn seals were the most popular ones, and every unicorn has this cult object before it, whatever it represents must be part of the central religious ritual of the Harappan religion. We know of one religion whose central religious cult [object] was a filter, that is the soma [cult] of the Indo-Aryans." If this is not an argument for the identity of Vedic and Harappan, I don't know what is. Yet, Mahadevan dismisses this conclusion citing the well-known argument that the Vedas know of no cities while Harappa had no horses, so "the only other possibility is that a soma-like cult (...) must have existed in Harappa and that it was taken over by the Indo-Iranians and incoming Indo-Aryans." This is a case of multilying entities without necessity.

Speaking of the unicorn: Prof. R.S. Sharma ("The Indus and the Saraswati", interview published on http://www2.cybercities.com/a/akhbar/godown/history/RSSIndus.htm) defends the AIT pointing out that the unicorn/ekashrnga is popular on Indus seals and in late- or post-Vedic literature but is not mentioned at all in the Rg-Veda. Within the AIT, this would be an anomaly: first the Harappans had unicorn symbolism, then the Vedic-Aryan invaders didn't have it, and finally the later Aryans again had it. The implied and slightly contrived explanation is that native unicorn symbolism went underground after the Aryan invasion, but reasserted itself later. But this pro-AIT argument is circular in the sense that it is dependent on the AIT-based chronology, viz. of the Rg-Veda as post-Harappan. Its force is dissolved (along with the anomaly) if the possibility is considered that the Rg-Veda was pre-Harappan, with the Unicorn an early Harappan innovation attested in both the the archaeological and the late-Vedic literary record.

Asko Parpola (in G. Erdosy: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p.370) has developed the theory that there is at least one clearly identifiable Hindu deity whose trail of importation from abroad we can follow. In the Bactrian Bronze Age culture, deemed Indo-Iranian if not specifically Indo-Aryan, ample testimony is available of the cult of a lion goddess, known in Hinduism as Durga, "the fortress", and who is "worshipped in eastern India as Tripura, a name which connects her with the strongholds of the Dasas". Politicized Indian invasionists usually claim goddess worship as a redeeming native, non-Aryan, "matriarchal" and "humanist" contribution to the "patriarchal" and "oppressive" Hindu religion, but now it turns out to have been brought along by the Bactrian invaders: how one invasionist can upset another invasionist's applecart.

However, Parpola himself reports elsewhere ("The coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethnic identity of the Dasas", Studia Orientalia, Helsinki 1988, p.238) that the same lion or tiger goddess was worshipped in the Indus-Saraswati civilization as well.

Discussing "carriers of the Bronze Age culture of Greater Iran" as having been "quickly absorbed into the Indus civilization", he finds support in "the famous Kalibangan seal showing a Durga-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger". For now we retain Parpola's confirmation of a common religious motif in a Harappan city and an Aryan culture (on top of the indications mentioned above of a soma cult in both the Harappan cities and the Bactria-Margiana Bronze Age culture); but whether this shows an early Bactrian penetration of India as far as the Saraswati riverside remains to be seen. The hypothesis that both Harappa and Bactria were Aryan, is less contorted.

Just like those few colleagues who have paid attention to the elements of continuity between Harappa and Aryan India, Sergent fails to discuss the most plausible conclusion that could be drawn from all this material: that Harappan and post-Harappan or Aryan are phases of a single civilization.

5.5. The impact of East-Asian mythology

Indo-European mythology, or some of its branches, has certain motifs and stories in common with mythologies of non-IE cultures. Some of these are a common heritage dating back to long before a separate IE linguistic and cultural identity existed.

Conversely, some myths can be shown to have been transmitted in a fairly recent time,

e.g. the Excalibur myth known to most readers through the King Arthur saga has an exactparallel in a North-Iranian myth, with the sword being drawn from the stone (a poetic reference to the mystery of metallurgy, transforming shapeless ore into metal implements), making its bearer invincible, and finally getting thrown into a lake. This is not because of a common IE heritage of the Celtic and Iranian communities, but because in the 2nd century AD, Sarmatian mercenaries in the Roman army were garrisoned in Britain and, well, told their story. (Shan

M.M. Winn: Heaven, Heroes and Happiness. The Indo-European Roots of Western Ideology, p.34-35) Through Mongolia and Korea, elements of this myth have even reached Japan when the supremacy of the sword was established there. So, myths are not necessarily witnesses from the night of time; their invention and transmission can sometimes be dated.

In the case of the transmission of East-Asian myths into Hindu tradition, by medium of the Munda-speaking culture of the eastern Ganga basin, the apparent date might pose a problem. Some contributions are fairly late: "The puja, that extremely common and important practice of covering the gods' idols with flowers and perfumes, is rather late in India, and succeeds wholly different practices: could that also be an East-Asian substratum?" (p.483, n.639, with reference to Louis de la Vallée Poussin: "Totémisme et végétalisme", 1929, who emphasizes the similarity with devotional practices among the Kol tribe and among the Semang, a tribe in Malaysia. The more usual explanation is that puja came from the Dravidian south.) On the other hand, Sergent mentions several apparently East-Asian contributions to Vedic and Puranic lore which point to the ultimate beginning of those traditions themselves.

The name of Ikshvaku, founder of the Solar Dynasty of Ayodhya, whom the Puranic genealogies place several dozen generations before the Rg-Vedic seers, literally means "bitter gourd". Likewise, Sumati, wife of the early Ayodhya king Sagara, is said to produce offspring with the aid of a bitter gourd. Sergent attributes this to the Southeast-Asian mythic motif of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd: "The Austro-Asiatic myth has visibly been transposed in the legends of Sumati and Ikshvaku". (p.386)

The birth of Vyasa's mother Satyavati from a fish equally refers to a Southeast-Asian myth, unknown in the IE world. The Brahmanas have a story of Brahma or Prajapati, the Creator, taking the form of a boar and diving to the bottom of the ocean to extract the earth and bring it to the surface (p.372, citing Taittiriya Brahmana 7:1:5:1-2 and Shatapatha Brahmana 14:1:2:11). This myth of the "cosmogonic plunge" is widespread in Siberia, among the native Americans, and among some Southeast-Asian peoples, but is foreign to the IE mythologies and to the Vedic Samhitas. The same is true of another innovative mythic motif appearing in the Brahmanas: Brahmanda, the cosmic egg which, when broken, releases all creatures.

Sergent explains that the Rg-Veda could not yet know these myths, just as it had not yet adopted items of Munda vocabulary, because its horizon was still confined to the northwest (note that Ikshvaku is first mentioned in the youngest part of the Rg-Veda: 10:60:4). But once the Vedic Aryans settled in the Ganga basin, they started assimilating the mythic lore of the Munda people, also immigrants, but who had settled there earlier. So, this seems to confirm the classic picture of the Aryans moving through North India from east to west.

However, even the non-invasionist school accepts that the Vedic tradition spread eastwards during and after the Harappan period, just as it spread to South India in subsequent centuries; but it maintains that the Ganga down to Kashi or so, already had an Indo-Aryan (but non-Vedic) population. This population was obviously exposed to influences from its eastern neighbours, immigrants from Southeast Asia. And their non-Vedic, partly borrowed traditions were incorporated in later Vedic and especially in Puranic literature. By contrast, the IE-speaking people living to the west of the Vedic Puru tribe, those who migrated to the west and formed the other branches of IE, were not exposed to this Austro-Asiatic lore, which is why their mythologies have not adopted elements from Southeast-Asian myths, just as their languages have not borrowed from Munda (or if they have, those words or those mythic motifs would be pan-IE and consequently not recognizable as borrowed).

If Ikshvaku, one of flood survivor Manu Vaivasvata's immediate successors, was indeed a historical figure, and if his name really refers to an Austro-Asiatic myth, then that would prove either that Manu and his crew had come from the southeast (but then why hasn't the bitter gourd myth become a pan-IE myth?), or that the Mundas were already in the Ganga basin at the beginning of IE history as narrated in the Puranic genealogies (6776 BC?). In that case, shouldn't non-invasionists be able to find more points of contact between IE and Munda, linguistically too?

A parallel argument could be made from the commonly assumed etymology of Ganga, a name already appearing in the oldest part of the Rg-Veda (6:45:31), viz. as an Austro-Asiatic loan cognate to Chinese kiang/jiang, "river". This would mean that the Munda presence in the (western!) Ganga basin well precedes the beginning of the Vedic period, and that they were either the first or the dominant group, so that they could impose their nomenclature. However, Zhang Hongming: "Chinese etyma for river", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, January 1998, p.1-43, has refuted the derivation of Chinese kiang from Austro-Asiatic, arguing among other things that the reconstructed Austro-Asiatic form is *krong, still preserved in the Mon-Khmer languages. This makes the Munda origin of Ganga less likely. A third language family may be involved, or an obscure IE etymon. How about kinship with Middle Dutch konk-el, "twist, turn, whirlpool"? Or simply a Vedic reduplication, nasalized for onomatopoeic effect, of the root ga-, "go", meaning "the fast-flowing"?

How exactly should we imagine the beginning of IE history in India, in what cultural and linguistic environment? For example, one could imagine that the Aryans overran the Indus basin, then Afghanistan and beyond, because they had been pushed to the west by invading Mundas from the east. If the idea of the fierce Aryans being put to flight by the fun-loving Mundas seems strange, remember that the invasion of the Roman Empire by the fierce Germanic tribes was partly caused by their being pushed westward by the Slavs. For another question: does this evidence of Munda contributions support the mainstream indological position that the entire Puranic history of the Vedic and pre-Vedic age in Ayodhya, Kashi or Prayag is but "reverse euhemerism", i.e. the transformation of myth into fabulated history, so that Ikshvaku and his clan never existed except as projections by aryanized Mundas of their gourd-god onto the ancestry of their conquerors? This is worth a discussion in its own right.

For now, I propose a hypothesis which takes care of all the data: there was a period of neighbourly coexistence of Indo-Aryans and Mundas in the Ganga basin, with a very limited exchange of cultural items (mythic motifs, vocabulary), which suddenly increased when the

Indo-Aryans started incorporating parts of the Munda territory and assimilating its inhabitants. This does not exclude that the Mundas entered India in the late-Vedic period; after all, even a pre-Munda population of the lower Ganga basin may have known some Southeast-Asian myths. But the main point is that North India was big enough to contain both Indoa-Aryans and Mundas, and that a Munda presence does not imply an Aryan invasion from outside India.

5.6. Some caveats to comparatists

Mythology is a large subject, and numerous myths are not well-known even to aficionados of the subject. This way, it sometimes happens that a Hindu myth gets classified as non-IE because it is not reported in any other IE mythology, only to show up in some far corner of the IE world upon closer scrutiny. Sergent provides one example.

Everyone knows the Hindu myth of the "churning of the ocean" with which the gods and demons jointly produce the amrta, the immortality drink. Sergent assures us that this myth "has no parallel in the IE world" (p.116), that it "is ignored by Vedic India and the IE world outside India" (p.378-379) but present in Mongolian mythology and in the Kojiki, a kind of Japanese Purana. Yet, he also informs us of a lesser-known Germanic myth in which the god Aegir churns the ocean to make the beer of the gods. (p.378-79, with reference to Georges Dumézil: Le Problème des Centaures, Paris 1929, p.51-60) But that one finding, even if it is in only one (but certainly distant) corner of the IE world, completely nullifies the earlier statement that the myth "has no parallel in the IE world". It is in fact possible that the Mongolian version (which is closer to the Germanic one, with a single deity doing the churning) and the Japanese version have been adapted from an IE original, just like the Excalibur myth.

Secondly, eastern contributions to Hindu tradition are not exclusively from the Mundas. The Rajasuya ceremony described in the Shatapatha Brahmana has an exact counterpart, not in Rome or Greece, nor in Chotanagpur or Japan, but in Fiji. The latter coronation ceremony has been analyzed into 19 distinct elements, and practically all of them are found in the Rajasuya. (p.381, with reference to Shatapatha Brahmana 5:3-5, and Arthur M. Hocart: Kingship, OUP 1927, p.76-83) This island culture is part of the vast expanse of the Austronesian language family. And indeed, a number of scholars have pointed out remarkable lexical similarities between IE and Austronesian. Unlike in the case of the Mundas, contacts of the Indo-Europeans with the Austronesians are hard to locate even in theory, unless we assume that the Austronesians at one time had a presence in India.

Finally, if a myth or religious custom is attested in India but not in the other IE cultures, this need not mean that the Indians have borrowed it from "pre-Aryan natives" or so. It can also mean that the other Indo-Europeans have lost what was originally a pan-IE heirloom. All of them have started by going through the same bottleneck, passing through Afghanistan, immediately plunging themselves into a very different climate from India's permanent summer, so that they had to adopt a very different lifestyle. And as they moved on, the difference only got bigger. Of practically all IE myths attested in some IE cultures, we know that they have been lost in other (generally in most) IE cultures; it is statistically to be expected that some myths have survived only in the Hindu tradition. And because of the full survival of Pagan religion in India plus the long centuries of literacy, it is in fact to be expected that a much higher percentage than the statistical average has only survived in India. So, probably, some myths attested only in Hinduism are purely IE, and if they are also attested in a non-IE neighbouring culture, the possibility remains that the latter has borrowed it from the Indo-Europeans rather than the reverse.

5.7. Harappa, teacher of China?

Quite separate from the importation of Southeast-Asian myths through the Austro-Asiatic population of the Ganga basin, Sergent also notes similarities between Harappan and Chinese civilizations unrelated to Munda lore. An important myth is that of the cosmogonic tortoise, the Chinese symbol of the universe; also the vehicle of Varuna, god of world order, and the form which, in the Shatapatha Brahmana, Prajapati takes to create the world. A tortoise-shaped construction forms part of the Yajur-Vedic fire altar, and the tortoise has also been depicted in a giant sculpture found in Harappa, indicating a similar myth. (p.116, with reference to John Marshall: Mohenjo Daro and the Indus civilization, London 1931) The tortoise as a cosmogonic symbol may well be one such mythic motif which is purely IE yet not attested in the non-Indian branches of IE. There is no indication for a foreign origin, and the tortoise's association with the Yamuna river (like the crocodile with the Ganga, the swan with the Saraswati) adds to its indigenous Northwest-Indian character.

Sergent also mentions the common origin of the Chinese and Hindu systems of 27 lunar mansions (Xiu, Nakshatra), which we have already considered. He admits that it could only have originated in an advanced culture, and that this was not Mesopotamia. He also notes that the Nakshatra system starts with the Pleiades/Krttika, which occupied the vernal equinox position in the centuries around 2,400 BC, exactly during the florescence of the Indus cities. This date, approximately, has been accepted by Jean Filliozat: "Notes d'astronomie ancienne de l'Iran et de l'Inde", Journal Asiatique 250, 1962, p.325-350; Albert Pike: "Lectures on the Arya", Kentucky 1873; and A.L. Basham: The Wonder That Was India, London 1954, according to Bernard Sergent: Genèse de l'Inde, p.422, n.65. We'll stick to this date for the present discussion, but not without mentioning that Asko Parpola (Decipherment of the Indus Script, p.206, p.263-265) himself gives reasons for thinking that Aldebaran had been the starting-point earlier, which would push back the birthdate of the Nakshatra system to ca. 3054 BC, the time of the pre-Harappan Kot Diji culture.

So, Harappa is the best bet as originator of this system, which spread to China and later also to West Asia. Sergent wonders aloud whether the similarities should be attributed to Harappa being "the teacher of China, whose civilization's beginning is contemporaneous". (p.380)

He informs us that the Nakshatra division of the heavens is unknown in other IE cultures, and in this case I would not speculate that they had known it but lost it along the way: rather, the system was invented after they had left India. This simple fact that there already was IE history before the genesis of the Nakshatra system also explains another fact he mentions: "The Rg-Veda doesn't allude to it, except in its 10th mandala, the youngest one occording to most indologists." (p.118) And even the youngest book only mentions "constellations" (RV 10:85:2), a concept known to all cultures, without specifying them as lunar mansions. At any rate, it is only at the end of (if not completely after) the Rg-Vedic period, well after the European branches of IE had left India, that the Nakshatra system was devised. This indicates once more that the Rg-Veda was pre-Harappan.

This chronology is confirmed by another fact related by Sergent: "Another aspect of the continuity between Indus and historical India is marked in the personal names: the oldest in Vedic India are in perfect conformity with Indo-European customs and highlight mostly the attributes with which an individial (or his family) adorns himself. In a later period astral names appear in India, which is foreign to the customs observed elsewhere among the Indo-Europeans". (p.121) Exactly: the Rg-Vedic people lived before the heyday of astronomy in Harappa and before the starry sky acquired a central place in the late-Vedic "and" in the Harappan religion.

5.7. The Harappan contribution

Sergent has identified the Oriental origin of so many Hindu myths, and the Dravidian (ultimately even African) origin of so many Hindu customs, including even the purity concept underlying post-Vedic caste relations: "As the same importance of purity is found in other societies, e.g. Semitic societies including even Islam and sub-Saharan Africa, it is not impossible that we have here another substratum: that of the ex-Dravidians of North India [Sindh-Gujarat], for instance?" (p.483, n.639) Yet, he has said relatively little about specifically Harappan contributions, eventhough these should logically have made a much larger impact. After all, the Harappans were more numerous, more advanced and more literate than the Mundas, and it is in their territory that the invading Aryans settled before scouting around in the then peripheral and relatively backward Munda-speaking region.

To be sure, Sergent devotes a chapter to the Harappan heritage in Hindu civilization. Thus, the weights and measures found in Lothal are the same ones which Kautilya has defined in his Arthashastra. (p.113) Personally, I would add that apart from being an important fact in itself, this continuity may also be symptomatic for a profounder continuity pertaining to fundamental cultural traits. Thus, the same search for standardization visible in the decimal measurements and in the orderly geometrical lay-out of the Harappan cities is evident in the rigorous structure of the Vedic hymns; in the attempt in the later Vedic literature to categorize all types of phenomena in neat little systems (from verbal conjugation classes listed by the grammarians through the Manu Smrti's artificial genealogy of the occupational castes in society to the Kama Sutra's varieties of sexual intercourse); and in the laborious ritual and architectonic details laid down in Brahminical texts for the proper construction of Vedic altars.

Sergent correctly notes that statuettes of mother goddesses have been found in large numbers in the Harappan cities, that mother goddesses are equally common in popular Hinduism, and that these are very uncommon in the historic IE religions. He also adds that in Europe, mother goddesses originated in the neolithic Old European culture, and remained popular all through the IE Pagan period to be picked up for christianization as Our Lady, suggesting a parallel: in India like in Europe, the popular pre-IE mother goddess survived and even asserted itself against the male-dominated IE official religion.

But clearly, IE religion was not hostile to the goddess cult: when the Church sought to win over the devout by accepting their goddess worship in a christianized form, most of Europe had been IE-speaking for several thousand years. All memory of a pre-IE period had vanished, yet these Celts and Romans and Germans venerated goddesses. In their mythologies, goddesses played only a supporting act, but this is the same situation as in Puranic Hinduism, in which goddess worship is widespread eventhough most myths have the male gods in the starring roles. It is like in real life: men need to dramatize their importance with all kinds of heroism, women simply are important without making such fuss over it. The Virgin Mary is by far the most popular Catholic saint, still present on every rural street corner around my village, much more popular than Jesus and His Father, yet the parts about her in the New Testament and the stories confabulated about her are very few. Therefore, our view of IE religion may be distorted by the fact that we rely on textual sources and myths, which belong to the public and official part of the religion; while by contrast, of Harappan religion we only have cult objects, showing us religion as it was lived by the people.

Sergent mentions the association of gods with animals as their respective "vehicle" (vahana: Vishnu's eagle, Shiva's bull, Saraswati's swan etc.) as an element of Hinduism which is commonly attributed to the pre-Aryan Harappans. But he minimizes this contribution, pointing out that such associated animals are common throughout the IE pantheon, e.g. Athena with her owl, Wodan with his raven, Jupiter who can appear as an eagle, Poseidon as a horse, Demeter as a cow. (p.115) In one case, the correspondence is even more exact: like Hindu goddess Saranyu (mother of the Ashwins), Celtic goddess Epona is imagined as either mare or rider.

Several more astronomy-based amendments to IE customs are mentioned as effects of Harappan influence, e.g. the fixation of the goddess festival (which existed in other parts of the IE world as well -- see that the Indo-Europeans had goddess cults of their own?) at the autumnal equinox. Very significant is the "stellar vestment": the shirt worn by the famous Harappan "priest-king" shows little three-petaled designs (also in evidence on other Harappan depictions), which Sergent, following Parpola, interprets as depictions of stars, exactly like in the scriptural description of the tarpya coat which the king must wear at some point in the Rajasuya ceremony. (p.121, with reference to Asko Parpola: Deciphering the Indus Script, p.201-218) In post-Harappan centuries, Mesopotamian kings are known to have worn such stellar vestments, and the China court ritual was likewise full of celestial symbolism.

What we see happening in the Harappan period is that a particular IE culture transforms itself under the impact of the florescence of what I would call a first scientific revolution; there is no indication of a foreign impact. Sergent has the facts under his own eyes without realizing their significance: "Shiva, Varuna, Yama, Durga-Parvati, we already said it, are deities of IE origin, the rituals concerning fire, soma and the person of the king are equally of IE if not Indo-Iranian origin. But it is now obvious that the Indo-Aryans, upon arriving in India, have amply harvested the Harappan heritage and included its ritual customs (construction of hearth-altars, rites inside buildings, use of the stellar vestment, ritual baths, fixation of feasts on the stellar equinoxes...) in their own religion." (p.124) Well, building facilities had been vastly improved, astronomical knowledge had been developed, so these innovations are not a matter of syncretism, merely of material and intellectual progress.

What more continuity was there? Apart from numerous material items, we note Harappan depictions of men wearing a tuft of hair on their backheads like Brahmins do, and of women wearing anklets. Some pictures suggest the notion of the "third eye". Most importantly, the Harappan people have remained in place: "the Italian anthropologist has emphasized not only that the skulls of Mohenjo Daro resemble those of today's Sindh and those of Harappa resemble those of today's Panjab, but even that the individual variability is identical today to what it was four thousand years ago." (p.128, quoting Mario Cappieri: "Ist die Indus-Kultur und ihre Bevölkerung wirklich verschwunden?", Anthropos 60:22, 1965, p.22)

Though Sergent considers it exaggerated to say that "the Indus civilization is still alive today", I would comment that it is not very exaggerated. (p.128; the quoted phrase, which Sergent dismisses in footnote 146, p.425, as "a Hindu nationalist myth", is from Dharma Pal Agrawal: L'Archéologie de l'Inde, CNRS, Paris 1986, p.2) But the point for now is that we really have seen very little evidence of the incorporation in Vedic tradition of elements which are foreign to it and which are traceable to the Harappan civilization. Compared with the limited but very definite list of items borrowed by Hindu tradition from cultures of East-Asian origin, the harvest in the case of the Harappan contribution is of a different type, larger but murkier. In spite of the ample archaeological material (quite in contrast with the zero objects identified as Vedic-age Austro-Asiatic), we don't get to see a sequence of "now it's in Harappa, and now it enters Vedic tradition". We don't get to see that clear contrast between Harappan and Vedic which most scholars have taken for granted. What we see is on the one hand plenty of elements which are simply in common between the Vedic and Harappan cultures, and on the other certain late-Vedic innovations which match the Harappan data and which constitute a departure from the common IE heritage: they are perfectly explainable through internal developments, particularly in proto-scientific knowledge and material control of the environment.

6. Conclusion

Bernard Sergent has written a book of incomparable erudition to narrate the genesis of the "composite culture" of Hinduism from what to him are the separate sources of Harappan, Dravidian, Indo-European and Austro-Asiatic elements. As part of this effort, he has tried to pinpoint the arrival of the Indo-Aryans in India, and this attempt has become the heroic failure of his book. Even in his two fields of expertise, he has not succeeded in finding decisive evidence for the Aryan invasion: in archaeology, he has not shown where a Bactrian or otherwise foreign culture crossed the Indus into India (indeed, the one entry he identifies as the Indo-Aryan invasion doesn't get farther than Pirak in Baluchistan); and in physical anthropology, he has not been able to identify an immigration wave coinciding with the supposed aryanization of northwestern India.

In comparative religion and mythology, he has thrown a few interesting challenges to non-invasionists, giving them some homework to do in fact-finding as well as in interpreting the data. But here too, he has not presented any insurmountable difficulties for a noninvasionist reading of the Harappan and Vedic information. On the contrary, many bits of information which he has either discovered or synthesized from secondary sources actually add substance to the emerging outlines of a non-invasionist version of ancient Indian and Indo-European history. For once the trite reviewer's phrase fully applies: one need not agree with Sergent's position, but his work is highly thought-provoking and bound to stimulate further research.

This is a shorter version of a chapter of Koenraad Elst's new book: Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, Aditya Prakashan, Delhi.

 

 

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jeudi, 13 octobre 2011

« Sarkozy sous BHL » : une grenade dégoupillée dans la cour de l'Elysée !

« Sarkozy sous BHL » : une grenade dégoupillée dans la cour de l'Elysée !

Interview de Roland Dumas et Jacques Vergès

Propos recueillis par Gilles Munier

Il y a quelque chose de pourri au royaume de France ! On attendait les révélations de Saif al-islam sur le financement de la campagne présidentielle de Nicolas Sarkozy par la Libye... À la place, on a eu droit, sur le même sujet, à la relance de l'affaire Bettencourt, le scandale politico-fiscal de la principale actionnaire de la société L'Oréal, puis à un déluge de révélations sur la remise de valises de billets en provenance de présidents africains, par l'entremise de l'avocat de la Françafrique Robert Bourgi (l'un des dénonciateurs, qui reconnaît avoir porté des valises) à des hommes politiques français, toutes tendances confondues. Dans cette atmosphère de fin de règne, on lira avec délectation le pamphlet de Jacques Vergès et Roland Dumas qui connaissent bien les dessous crapuleux du renversement du colonel Kadhafi. Un pamphlet à lire d'une traite*. 

Afrique Asie : « Sarkozy sous BHL », le pamphlet que vous venez de publier, est une volée de bois vert contre le pouvoir de l'argent en politique. Pouvoir et argent ont toujours cohabité, sauf peut-être dans certains pays socialistes. Qu'apporte de nouveau la présidence Sarkozy dans ce domaine ? 

Roland Dumas : Le pouvoir de l'argent a toujours existé. Au travers des siècles. Dans tous les régimes. Il est triste de voir une grande démocratie ou « prétendue telle » comme la République française, être en proie à un phénomène aujourd'hui décuplé. 

Les révélations qui sortent chaque jour sont édifiantes à ce sujet mais la « France Afrique » n'est pas simplement un problème d'argent et de valises de billets. C'est aussi une méthode qui nous ramène des siècles en arrière et qui repose sur des actions militaires, en bref, sur le colonialisme : « Un régime vous déplaît, on le change, on en installe un autre ». Peut-on dire que c'est là le progrès ? 

Jacques Vergès : Ce que la présidence Sarkozy apporte de nouveau dans les relations entre pouvoir et argent est l'hypertrophie du rôle de l'argent sale et de la corruption qui s'ensuit, faisant de la République française une République bananière. Ses relations avec les pays africains et arabes ne se font plus à travers des diplomates mais à travers des affairistes douteux. 

Afrique Asie : Vous vous en prenez à « Lévy d'Arabie »... BHL. Est-ce la première fois, sous la République, qu'un intellectuel détient publiquement un tel pouvoir? Peut-on comparer son influence à celle de Jacques Attali sur François Mitterrand ou de Marie-France Garaud sur Georges Pompidou puis Jacques Chirac ? 

Jacques Vergès : On ne peut comparer les rôles discrets de M. Attali auprès du président Mitterrand ou de Madame Garaud auprès de Georges Pompidou avec le rôle de M. Lévy auprès de Sarkozy qui est un rôle de décideur. Le président Sarkozy entérine les conciliabules de M. Lévy avec des émissaires libyens dans les hôtels parisiens. 

Roland Dumas : C'est sans doute la première fois qu'un intellectuel aussi médiocre que M. Bernard-Henry Lévy joue un rôle aussi important dans la République. On ne peut le comparer ni à Jacques Attali qui était une institution dans la République ou à Marie-France Garaud qui disposait d'une relation personnelle avec Georges Pompidou. La situation insolite de M. BHL ne relève ni d'un cas ni d'un autre. Il n'est rien dans la République. Il s'impose. Il virevolte. Il joue les « mouches du coche ». 

Afrique Asie : En Libye, le CNT occupe Tripoli. Qu'en est-il de la plainte que vous comptiez déposer accusant Nicolas Sarkozy de crime de guerre ? 

Jacques Vergès : Cette plainte attend que M. Sarkozy ne soit plus à même d'empêcher cette plainte de suivre son cours. 

Afrique Asie : Après la Libye, Sarkozy menace la Syrie et l'Iran. Où s'arrêtera-t-il ? 

Jacques Vergès : M. Sarkozy est irresponsable, il est capable désormais de toutes les folies à moins que le peuple français ne lui passe une camisole de force auparavant. 

Roland Dumas : C'est cela qui nous inquiète. Les menaces contre la Syrie sont précises. Elles sont sérieuses. Les menaces contre l'Iran existent. On a l'impression que tout est fait pour embraser le Proche-Orient. A quoi cela correspond-il ? On peut se le demander. Je ne peux séparer la situation actuelle de ce qui se passe à l'ONU au sujet des Palestiniens. 

L'humanité se déshonore en laissant tomber le peuple palestinien qui est raisonnable, paisible et ne demande pour lui que ce que les israéliens ont obtenu pour eux-mêmes. 

Afrique Asie : Après le renversement de Saddam Hussein, de Laurent Gbagbo et du colonel Kadhafi, ne sommes-nous pas en définitive en train d'assister à un retour accéléré du colonialisme ? 

Roland Dumas : Tout à fait. Nous assistons à un retour, non seulement accéléré mais amplifié, démultiplié du colonialisme avec des moyens énormes. Saura-t-on un jour le coût des campagnes de l'Afghanistan et de la Libye ? Le peuple français a le droit de savoir. Au moment où tout le monde s'agite autour de la crise, n'est-il pas raisonnable de poser la question du coût de guerres inutiles et monstrueuses ? 

Jacques Vergès : C'est évident que la politique de M. Sarkozy marque un retour du colonialisme à un moment où la France et l'Occident en général n'en ont plus les moyens. Il peut renverser les gouvernements mais ne peut assurer l'ordre ensuite. 

Afrique Asie : Pensez-vous que l'Algérie soit sur la liste des « pays à casser » ? 

Roland Dumas : Pourquoi pas. Le contentieux entre la France et l'Algérie est durable. Quand vous imaginez que les Français n'ont pas encore souscrit à la proposition de négociations avec l'Algérie sur un contrat d'amitié, parce que trop de blessures sont encore saignantes... Tout est à craindre pour l'Algérie, mais ce sera pour M. Sarkozy un autre « morceau »...

Notes

* Lire « Bonnes feuilles » dans Afrique Asie d'octobre 2011 

** « Sarkozy sous BHL », par Roland Dumas et Jacques Vergès (Ed. Pierre-Guillaume de Roux) - 126 pages - 13,90 euros 

Source Afrique Asie via Vox NR cliquez ici et NDP Ile-de-France cliquez là