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samedi, 18 février 2017

The Lombards

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The Lombards

At the end of the sixth century, he Roman Empire, rocked by relentless waves of violent barbarians -- Goths, Huns, Vandals -- civilization on the Italian penisula teeters on the brink of collapse. As famine, war, plague leave death devastation in their wake, out of north bursts the last of the barbarian hordes. Fiercely pagan, famous for their cruelty, the Lombards strike the final blow to the Roman Empire.
In 488 the Lombards are a small but particularly savage group of warriors on the move, surviving by viciously raiding other tribes Originating in Scandinavia and migrating south, into Roman regions, they eventually inhabit what became modern day Austria and Hungary At the turn of the 6th century only the eastern half of the empire remains, ruled by the Byzantine emperor from Constantinople.

Alboin, king of the Lombards, was celebrated as a man fitted for wars, with noble bearing and courage. The emperor Justinian recruited Alboin and the Vandals to aid in the reconquest of Italy which was controlled by the Goths. The Roman military leaders disgusted by the uncontrolled Lombard warriors, relegated them to a new homeland along the banks of the Danube River. In 568, the Lombards, well familiar with Italy from earlier days as Roman mercenaries, invade Rome, inviting Saxons, Bulgars and other barbarian tribes to join.

Much of our information regarding the Lombards is found in the 8th century chronicler Paul the Deacon's work, HISTORY OF THE LOMBARDS, translated by William Dudley Foulke, LL.D., edited with introduction by Edward Peters, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1907

This History Channel documentary series, Barbarians 2, tells the fascinating stories of four of the most fabled groups of fighters in history, the Saxons, the Lombards, the Franks, the Vandals, tracing 1,000 years of conquest and adventure through inspired scholarship and some of the most extensive reenactments ever filmed.

mardi, 14 février 2017

Il samurai di Fiume

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Il samurai di Fiume

Harukichi, lillipuziano nel corpo ma titano nello spirito, è in Italia da tempo e a Fiume ci va più che volentieri. Già da studente in Giappone si era innamorato della nostra cultura, della nostra lingua, della nostra storia, e quindi sceglie di venire da noi, a studiare Dante. L’Italia è sua seconda Patria, e la ama tantissimo.
 
di Federico Mosso 
Ex: http://www.linttelletualedissidente.it 
 
Harukichi Shimoi è alto un soldo di cacio, minuscolo persino per i canoni giapponesi. Gabriele D’Annunzio, che pure lui non è di certo un batusso, al suo fianco giganteggia. “Da Fiume d’Italia, Porta d’Oriente, salutiamo la luce dell’Oriente estremo”. È un brindisi in onore del piccolo ospite nipponico, che il Vate concede durante un pranzo a Fiume occupata, anzi liberata, in quello straordinario episodio storico d’irredentismo italiano. Al Camerata Samurai eja eja alalà! Alla “mensa di guerra” si alzano i calici di vino dei signori ufficiali dai petti plurimedagliati; giù nel gargarozzo, l’impresa è nella sua fase di viva esaltazione, i cuori dei legionari bruciano eccitati. In quei mesi tra il 1919 e il 1920 si sta scrivendo la Storia dell’Adriatico.

Harukichi, lillipuziano nel corpo ma titano nello spirito, è in Italia da tempo e a Fiume ci va più che volentieri. Già da studente in Giappone si era innamorato della nostra cultura, della nostra lingua, della nostra storia, e quindi sceglie di venire da noi, a studiare Dante. L’Italia è sua seconda Patria, e la ama tantissimo. Si stabilisce a Napoli dove ha una cattedra all’Istituto Universitario Orientale, antico tempio del sapere europeo, dedicato alla ricerca e allo studio di culture orientali ed extracontinentali. Naturalmente parla benissimo l’italiano, con un simpatico accento partenopeo. All’ombra del Vesuvio nel 1920 fonda e cura la rivista di poesia Sakura prima rassegna moderna europea dell’arte e della poesia dell’Estremo Oriente. Già il nome stesso è poesia: fior di ciliegio, simbolo di bellezza e rinascita, di rigenerazione. Che personaggio, Harukichi, tappo coltissimo pieno di vita, occhi a mandorla e dialetto napoletano. Ma non pensiamo ad una macchietta! Ad un uomo buffo! Sorridiamo piuttosto, a quel nano gigantesco dalle sopracciglia enormi, uomo scalmanato e dotato di curiosità vorace, appassionato di poesia e lui stesso poeta, seguace di D’Annunzio e successivamente ammiratore del fascismo, di cui sarà acceso sostenitore all’estero, quando rientrerà a Tokyo.

Bushido: la via del guerriero. Codice di cavalleria, codice samurai. Onestà, sincerità, lealtà, giustizia, pietà, gentilezza, compassione, rispetto, educazione, dovere, onore. Fino alla morte. Harukichi Shimoi trova un naturale punto di contatto con il fascismo mussoliniano e il retaggio bushido, Sol Levante e Mediterraneo si abbracciano. Harukichi racconta storie della sua patria lontana, e affascina. A Mussolini, che gli è amico, narra le avventure dei vecchi Shogun, di tradizioni secolari, di cappa e spada samurai, del sucidio seppuku delle Tigri Bianche, guerrieri di un reggimento agli ordini del daimyō Katamori Matsudaira, che quando videro il castello del loro signore avvolto dalle fiamme e credendo il daimyō morto, decisero di uccidersi in massa. Il Duce rimane impressionato. Tutt’oggi, nelle vicinanze della città di Aizu, dove c’è il cimitero delle Tigri Bianche,  c’è una colonna di epoca romana e sotto di essa, una targa: Allo spirito del Bushido. È un omaggio commemorativo che Mussolini invia nel 1928, dopo aver ascoltato il racconto di Shimoi.

Facciamo un passo indietro, prima del fascismo, siamo nel mezzo della prima guerra mondiale. Il professore giapponese si arruola come volontario tra le fila del Regio Esercito. Entra nel corpo speciale degli Arditi. Sono gli atleti della trincea, corrono a dare e ricevere la morte. Abili con le bombe a mano, sperimentatori di lanciafiamme, insuperabili con il pugnale. Occhio alla gola, austriaco. Gli Arditi sono esperti nel corpo a corpo e Shimoi fornisce il suo contributo impartendo lezioni di karate, disciplina che possiamo ritenere più che utile nella lotta cattiva di quella guerra. Nel grande carnaio, conosce Gabriele D’Annunzio e i due stringono amicizia. Assieme avrebbero dovuto intraprendere il raid aereo Roma-Tokyo, ma altri eventi irrompono in scena. Li rivediamo infatti assieme, pochi anni dopo, non nei cieli ma a Fiume, durante l’Impresa. Ribellione! I legionari con alla testa il Poeta hanno preso la città del Carnaro, vogliono renderla all’Italia perché è stata rubata, e la colpa del furto è dell’americano, il presidente Wilson che dice no, no, no.

Fiume, 1919-20, sedici mesi di insonnia, che esperienza deve esser stata per chi l’ha vissuta. Altro che Sessantotto, tsè. Baraonda di libertà e festa, ma anche e soprattutto fucina di idee, arti, politica. Harukichi Shimoi ci arriva a febbraio del ’20. Poche sono le informazioni sulla sua permanenza fiumana. Ma allora che queste righe si prendano la licenza di uscire dalla serietà della ricerca storica e che introducano un elemento di fiction per infrangere liberi le leggi della corretta cronologia: ci interessa capire l’ambiente. Gli occhi a mandorla del nostro amico letterato sono il mezzo fiction con cui si vuole raccontare quello che a Fiume è successo per davvero. Harukichi Shimoi passeggia per le strade e le piazze della città, piccolo ma fiero nella sua divisa d’ardito con il pugnale e il nero fez, e i suoi occhi curiosi sotto le sopracciglia enormi osservano e ci riportano episodi. Corri corri generale: tutti sotto il balcone del Palazzo del Governo, il Comandante Governatore parla alla folla: “In questo folle e vile mondo Fiume è oggi un simbolo di libertá; nel mondo folle e vile vi è una sola cosa pura: Fiume; vi è una sola verità …” D’Annunzio arringa, bravissimo, e sotto il tripudio. Ma da chi è composta la folla? È una ressa multiforme, multicolore, multiculturale. Lista disordinata di individui: arditi, alpini, bersaglieri, carabinieri, avventurieri, cittadini, signore, puttane, marinai, aviatori, eroi, artisti, poeti, futuristi, fasciopionieri, studenti, anarchici, libertini, bohémien, dandy, imperialisti, sognatori, pirati, sbandati, nazionalisti, sindacalisti, socialisti, monarchici, repubblicani, stranieri, rivoluzionari, pazzi. È il marasma magnifico di individui, pensieri e intenti; episodio unico ed irrepetibile.

Gli occhi del giapponese scrutano affamati di cose, uomini, azioni, e si riempiono. Laggiù al porto, i ragazzacci del UCM – Ufficio Colpi di Mano, festeggiano la caccia fortunata, hanno arrembato un mercantile, molte le provviste di bottino. Sono gli uscocchi, i corsari di D’Annunzio, vanno in missione di guerriglia marina, assaltano per rifornire la città. In corso Dante è l’ora dell’aperitivo. Fa il suo quotidiano ingresso trionfale, con la corte di ammiratori e fanciulle, in bombetta e bastone, il futuruomo Marinetti. Cammina svelto, ha l’attenzione di altri passanti, dunque si ferma e declama: “Ritti sulla cima del mondo, noi scagliamo, una volta ancora, la nostra sfida alle stelle!” Volano le bombette, pure qualche sedia dei caffé. Il clima è orgiastico, i postriboli incassano, il sesso è mercenario, certamente,  ma anche donato perché gli amori sbocciano molti e liberi, l’euforia è afrodiasiaca, e altresì l’appartamento del Principe D’Annunzio ha la sua porticina segreta, vecchie e nuove fiamme  rendono omaggio al poeta armato quando cala la notte.

Il Camerata Samurai nella Fiume delle ore piccole, continua la sua esplorazione della nostra Storia, che ora è fantastica. Dalle osterie esce chiasso, il vino scorre, sempre, dai bordelli escono i legionari che sorridono, contenti. Un drappello furtivo s’infila in un portone poco illuminato. Vanno a comprare cocaina. Ce n’è parecchia, va di moda. Sono stati gli aviatori, con le loro scatoline d’oro dove custodivano la polvere pestifera, a far tendenza malandrina. La usavano in azione durante voli estenuanti, adesso la fiutano anche a terra. Pure il Vate prende il vizio, a 57 anni suonati si farcisce  le narici golose. In un angolo, una rissa: son cose che capitano quando c’è grande concentrazione di animi surriscaldati. Dopotutto, sono tanti i reduci; è gente che quieta non sa più stare; è gente per sempre scossa dal massacro, gli abiti borghesi stanno stretti. Succede anche in Germania con i Freikorps, oppure anche in Stati Uniti, nel secondo dopoguerra, con i veterani dell’aria che si aggregano in bande di motociclisti, come gli Hells Angels. Il soldato in guerra impara la vita guerriera e l’orrore, ma quando la guerra finisce? Non tutti vogliono o riescono a rientrare nei ranghi civili, nella moderazione, nella quiete. Anche nel primo dopoguerra italiano, è così.

Me ne frego! Il motto è coniato a Fiume. In esso tutto un universo di volontà individualiste, turbolente, di rendere la vita una fiamma che arde. Nessun futuro, viviamo adesso, da leoni.  E un leone coraggioso anche se strambo e indisciplinato è Guido Keller, con cui Harukichi si ferma a fare due parole, sotto un lampione, prima dell’alba. Esistono gli uomini “normali” e poi esistono i Keller. Keller è un Keller. Asso dell’aviazione di guerra, non sta mai fermo, lui è edonista, eccentrico, nudista, tritone adriatico, primo corsaro di Fiume ed è amico di una bellissima aquila addestrata con cui certe volte dorme appollaiato in cima agli alberi: che sia voglia incontrollabile di cielo, mal di nuvole, il richiamo delle stelle? Li raggiunge Giovanni Comisso, legionario e scrittore. Comisso e Keller si spingono oltre, danno vita a il Gruppo Yoga, con tendenze esoteriche, e scelgono simboli raccolti dall’Oriente misterioso come la svastica (è inutile stropicciarsi gli occhi, siamo nel 1920, il nazismo è solo un feto, anzi nemmeno feto, solo seme) e la rosa a cinque petali.

Sulla rivista “YOGA” c’è scritto: Unione libera di spirti di Fiume: Grifone Italico! Lo stile e la forma dell’azione sono elette dalla bellezza, e vi obbediscono. Quante altre cose potremmo far vedere agli occhi di Harukichi Shimoi, il Camerata Samurai di Fiume, scomodato per l’occasione per una veloce testimonianza sugli aspetti più colorati dell’Impresa di fiumana, esplosione di orgoglio nazionale, militare e allo stesso tempo ribelle.

Rientrando nei ranghi della Storia per bene e severa, come va fatta, scopriamo che Shimoi, capitano degli Arditi, è scelto da D’Annunzio come suo personale messaggero per l’odiato amico Mussolini. Il giapponese fa da collegamento, porta e riceve messaggi, s’intrufola tra le linee che stringono la città insonne, viaggia per la causa degli italiani, la sua causa. Non andiamo oltre, il tempo scorre, seguono altre storie, nuovi ordini, un’altra guerra. Diamo ancora un ultimo sguardo all’Impresa. La giovinezza è al potere, a Fiume, luogo fuori dal tempo, esperimento storico, laboratorio di quello che verrà, alchimia di passioni. La Storia diviene arte.

 
 
 

16:51 Publié dans Histoire | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : histoire, fiume, italie, japon, gabriele d'annunzio, harukishi shimoi | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

vendredi, 10 février 2017

La russophobie en Occident

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La russophobie en Occident

Visitez le site du Cercle de l’Aréopage :
http://cercleareopage.org

Conférence au Cercle de l'Aréopage:
La russophobie en Occident
Par Dimitri de Kochko

Retrouvez les évènements du Cercle :
http://cercleareopage.org/conf%C3%A9r...

Lisez La Relance de la Tradition: Notes sur la situation de l'Église
Broché:
http://tinyurl.com/h6c52ho
Pour liseuse:
http://tinyurl.com/ztehnyd

mardi, 07 février 2017

1917: Early Moves Toward American Intervention in World War I

This short piece continues series on some “Deeply Momentous Things” — that is, American intervention in the First World War. (See Part One.) As the first installment has shown in a general way, the background of the war among Europe and its extensions (Canada, Australia, etc.) is crucial to understanding how the United States would eventually declare war on the Central Powers. More specifics on this issue will help us understand just what the might of the United States meant to the warring powers.

European leaders on both sides hoped to change the dynamic of the war in January 1917. Certainly, from a technical military standpoint, 1916 represented a highly complicated and progressive experimentation with methods of war that would break up the stalemate. In answer to a question posed in the first installment — who was winning at the end of 1916 — if I had to choose the side that had the upper hand in December 1916, I would probably choose the Central Powers by a nose.

In December 1916, Field Marshal Haig, Commander of the British forces on the Western Front, sent in an extensive report to his government on the just completed Somme Campaign. The Somme battles had advanced the Allied line in some places but had never come close to a breakthrough. And the losses of both British and French units were appalling. Yet Haig declared the Somme campaign a victory in that it had achieved the wearing down of the Germans and the stabilization of the front.

Yet even with Haig’s report in hand, British statesmen and diplomats were not as optimistic. The Field Marshal’s optimism could not hide the fact that the Somme advance had been at best shallow, and that the Germans still held onto nearly as much of France as they had before. And significantly, the Central Powers were killing Entente troops at a faster rate than the Allies were killing the Germans and their Allies. For every two deaths on the side of the Central Powers, three Entente soldiers were dying.

And there were more concrete signs of distress. In East Central Europe, recently acquired Entente partner Romania faced an Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian force which had besieged and captured the Romanian capital, Bucharest. The great Brusilov Offensive against the German and Austro-Hungarian armies was an enormous success at its beginning, and almost certainly took pressure off the French defenders at Verdun, in France. But the offensive tailed off with counterattacks that were costly and worrisome. And there were in addition, the enormous losses to the Brusilov fighters, upwards of a million dead, wounded, and captured. In Russia, rumblings of demoralization — including the plot which would end in Rasputin’s murder in December 1916 — emerged as hunger and depletion accompanied deep winter. In retrospect, the Brusilov Offensive planted the seeds of Russia’s revolutionary collapse the following year — which would no doubt have tipped the balanced sharply in favor of the Central Powers had the United States not intervened.

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Elsewhere, it is true, things were going somewhat better for the Russians and the British in fighting the Ottoman Empire by December 1916 and January 1917, but many British leaders thought they were looking at the real crisis of the war a hundred years ago. Hoping to bring every kind of weapon to bear in the midst of this depressing and murderous year, British leaders departed from their slogan of “business as usual” in a variety of ways. Great Britain had already adopted conscription a year earlier in January 1916, though not quite in time to supply replacements for the inevitable losses in the coming offensive operations on the Somme and elsewhere. On the diplomatic front, it was in 1916 that the British government began a process that would end by promising overlapping parts of the Ottoman Empire both to the future “king of the Arabs” and to Jews across the world as a future homeland. At the same time, British propaganda designed to influence the United States to enter the war heightened dramatically. Charles Masterman’s War Propaganda Bureau in London worked on the “American question” with newspaper subventions in the United States, speaking tours, increased distribution of the famous Bryce Report on German atrocities in Belgium, and in other ways.

One crucial example of non-traditional attempts to break the impasse was the starvation of German civilians resulting from the British Blockade. In place since late 1914, the Blockade kept even neutrals from delivering food and other essentials to Germany. Before the Blockade was lifted in 1919, somewhere between 500,000 and 800,000 German civilians would die from starvation and from the effects of nutritional shortages on other conditions. Adding indirect deaths influenced by nutritional privation adds many more to the total (see the excellent analysis of the Blockade by David A. Janicki, as well as Ralph Raico’s detailed review of the classic book on the subject by C. Paul Vincent).

The dynamics of the Blockade intensified among the belligerents the importance of future American decisions. In order to survive the war, Britain had to control the seas. In order to survive the war, Germany had to eat. But at the same time, Germany had to avoid bringing the world’s most powerful economy into the conflict. Unlimited submarine warfare was the most likely way to break the Blockade and eat. But German statesman expressly feared that this step would bring the United States into the war. (See the minutes of a top-level German meeting on the issue of unlimited submarine warfare from August 1916.)

Meanwhile, the one obvious solution to the war — namely, ending it — seemed out of the question. Both sides desired any help they could get, but both sides had turned down offers of mediation, truce, and negotiations, all of these attempts foundering on the acquisitive territorial aims and financial obligations of one belligerent or the other.

One important note: the weather impacted home and battle fronts. The winter of 1916/17 was one of the coldest in memory. The impact on the hungry German home front was immense — this was the terrible “turnip winter,” so-called because turnips were about the only home-grown food available to many. But the soldiers on all sides found the cold almost unbearable as well, misery in the trenches and encampments did not bode well for the future will to fight in any army.

Quite clearly, momentous American decisions were crucial to the future course of the war.

Note: The views expressed on Mises.org are not necessarily those of the Mises Institute.

18:33 Publié dans Histoire | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : histoire, états-unis, première guerre mondiale, 1917 | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

mercredi, 01 février 2017

Septembre 1955 : pogrom contre les Grecs d’Istanbul

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Septembre 1955 : pogrom contre les Grecs d’Istanbul

Par Erich Körner-Lakatos

Le souvenir de septembre 1955 est un souvenir d’horreur pour tous ceux qui se revendiquent « Rhoméens » ou « Romains », c’est-à-dire descendants des habitants autochtones de la ville de Constantinople, capitale et point focal de l’Empire romain d’Orient. Ces Grecs sont environ 150.000 et vivent autour de leur chef spirituel, le Patriarche Œcuménique de Phanar, le quartier nord-ouest de l’actuelle Istanbul. Les Turcs les appellent les « Roums ».

En l’espace d’une seule génération, les Grecs de la capitale ottomane ont subi des changements considérables de statut. Pendant la première guerre mondiale, ils ont risqué de subir le même sort que les Arméniens. Comme de notoriété, le ministre ottoman de l’intérieur Mehmed Talaat Pacha avait ordonné l’élimination totale des Arméniens en avril 1915, ce peuple de négociants et d’artisans qui, selon les écrits mêmes du ministre, « auraient sapé les fondements de l’Etat ottoman depuis des siècles ». Les autorités ottomanes soupçonnent ces Caucasiens de sympathiser avec les Russes et d’être prêts à collaborer avec eux, au cas où ils débouleraient dans l’Empire ottoman et le vaincraient.

Mais les « Rhoméens » en furent quitte pour la peur, au contraire des Arméniens et des Grecs du Pont (les habitants orthodoxes de la côte méridionale de la Mer Noire). En août 1922, Atatürk bat les armées grecs entrées en Anatolie, provoquant ce que l’on appelle à Athènes la « Grande Catastrophe ». Les « Rhoméens », une nouvelle fois, craignent le pire. Leur sort est effectivement incertain. Mais ils y échappent : le Traité de Lausanne comporte une clause prévoyant un échange de populations : 1,5 millions de Grecs d’Anatolie deviennent du coup des apatrides. Les négociateurs du Traité parviennent à un accord : selon l’article 40, les 70.000 « Rhoméens » de Constantinople peuvent rester dans la grande ville.

Fin 1942, début 1943, les Grecs sont visés par une loi spéciale concoctée par le successeur d’Atatürk, Ismet Inönü. Foulant aux pieds le principe kémaliste de la laïcité, le gouvernement turc impose une rétrocession sur la fortune pour tous les citoyens non musulmans, la fameuse « Varlik Vergisi ». Ceux qui ne parviennent pas à verser la somme exigée au bout de deux semaines, voit ses biens et ses propriétés saisis par l’Etat.

En 1955, ce fut pire encore. Istanbul compte alors à peu près un million d’habitants, dont un peu plus que cent mille « Rhoméens ». En plus de cette population grecque et orthodoxe, on trouve dans la ville d’autres groupes ethno-religieux, tels les juifs espagnols et les Arméniens qui, malgré les atrocités qu’ils ont subies, n’ont pas voulu quitter leur ville d’origine. A ces deux minorités, s’ajoutent quelques milliers de Russes fidèles au Tsar. En effet, en novembre 1920, quand la guerre civile russe se terminait, les résidus des armées blanches, battues, commandées par un général d’origine allemande, Peter Wrangel, avaient abandonné la Crimée à bord de navires de guerre français, qui mouillaient à Sébastopol. Une partie de ces réfugiés s’étaient définitivement fixés à Constantinople. Les autres avaient pris le chemin de l’exil, principalement vers la France.  

Que s’est-il passé à la fin de l’été 1955 ?

Le 5 septembre, des camions amènent des hommes jeunes et vigoureux dans la vieille cité grecque, dominée par la Haghia Sophia. Sans se faire remarquer, ces hommes, en apparence anodins, se dirigent vers les quartiers abritant les commerces et les ateliers des minorités. Le lendemain, tous les journaux turcs répandent la nouvelle d’un attentat à la bombe contre la maison natale d’Atatürk à Salonique. La radio d’Etat confirme la nouvelle à 13 h. Les émotions vont crescendo. Puis, tout d’un coup, des bâtons amenés le matin sont distribués dans les mains des émeutiers potentiels. Ils passent à l’action : ils brisent les vitrines des magasins grecs, molestent violemment les boutiquiers qui protestent. En hurlant, ils pénètrent dans les magasins, cassent tout et jettent les débris dans les rues. L’artère commerçante d’Istiklal est particulièrement touchée. Les bandes de sauvages brandissent des drapeaux turcs. Les pillards profitent de l’occasion. Tous manient le gourdin. On tire la barbe des moines orthodoxes, on les traînent dans les rues en les battant. On en brûle un vif : il avait plus de 90 ans.

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La police n’intervient nulle part. Certes, des Turcs, habitant Istanbul depuis des générations, aident leurs concitoyens orthodoxes, les cachent, surtout les femmes et les jeunes filles. Il faut attendre minuit pour que les premiers détachements de la police se manifestent et arrêtent des fanatiques, occupés à déterrer les corps des anciens patriarches pour les profaner.

Bilan des troubles de la journée : seize morts, entre 20 et 30 blessés graves, des centaines de viols, 73 églises profanées, 4383 commerces dévastés, plus d’un millier de maisons détruites.

Le gouvernement du premier ministre Menderes décrète que cette colère populaire a été la réponse à l’attentat de Salonique. Il a fallu attendre des années pour que la vérité se fasse connaître, ainsi que le confirme le général Sabri Yirmibesoglu, président d’une « Commission spéciale de guerre » : les événements des 6 & 7 septembre 1955 relèvent de la responsabilité des autorités turques.

Une série de faits s’avèrent toutefois frappante : les responsables initiaux des incidents dont les chrétiens furent victimes sont tous morts de mort violente. L’ancien ministre de l’intérieur de l’Empire ottoman, Talaat Pacha, qui s’était exilé à Berlin, est assassiné à coups de couteau par un Arménien. Quant au premier ministre turc Menderes, qui avait manigancé le progrom de septembre 1955, le bourreau lui passera la corde au cou : il avait été condamné à mort le 15 septembre 1961. L’exécution eut lieu deux jours plus tard.

Erich Körner-Lakatos,

Article paru dans « zur Zeit », Vienne, n°4/2017. Site : http://www.zurzeit.at .

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Face au pogrom antigrec, quelle fut la réaction de Washington ?

La Turquie n’avait pas à craindre de sanctions de la part du monde occidental car Washington demeurait pour elle un allié fidèle. Après la seconde guerre mondiale, les Américains aident le pays et s’opposent à la volonté de Staline d’annexer la région de Kars (que Lénine avait cédée à Atatürk en 1921). En effet, en avril 1946, le gouvernement des Etats-Unis envoie à Istanbul le puissant navire de guerre USS Missouri, navire amiral de la flotte américaine en Méditerranée. Ankara paiera sa dette pendant la guerre de Corée. La Turquie est l’un des seize pays qui enverront des troupes dans le sud de la Corée. Le plus petit contingent fut celui du Luxembourg : 85 hommes. La brigade turque était forte de 5000 hommes sous le commandement du Général Tahzin Yazici. Elle avait débarqué à Pusan en octobre 1950. Elle s’est très bien battue. Lors d’une bataille, les Américains et les Britanniques se replient dès qu’une vague impressionnante de volontaires communistes chinois passe à l’attaque. Les Turcs, eux, ne cèdent pas. Ils fixent leurs baïonnettes aux canons de leurs fusils et se lancent à l’assaut. Le Général Douglas MacArthur chante leurs louanges : « Les Turcs sont l’incarnation de l’héroïsme ». 765 soldats turcs sont tombés au combat en Corée. 5247 d’entre eux ont été blessés ou portés disparus. Le 18 février 1952, la Turquie devient membre de l’OTAN, envers et contre l’avis des Grecs et de leurs protecteurs britanniques. Le Danemark aussi s’était prononcé contre l’adhésion turque. Motif : la dynastie grecque est d’origine danoise. D’où l’alliance entre Athènes et Copenhague.

EKL (réf. Supra).

 

19:39 Publié dans Histoire | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : histoire, istanbul, constantinople, turquie | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

jeudi, 26 janvier 2017

Jansénisme: Conférence de Marion Sigaut à Amiens

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Les origines du jansénisme

Conférence de Marion Sigaut à Amiens

E&R Picardie recevra Marion Sigaut le samedi 28 janvier 2017 à 15h à Amiens pour une conférence intitulée « Les origines du jansénisme ».

Réservations : conference.picardie@hotmail.com

Entrée : 5 euros.

Retrouvez Marion Sigaut chez Kontre Kulture :

 

dimanche, 22 janvier 2017

Come ha perso la Russia un intero continente

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Come ha perso la Russia un intero continente

 

Pochi sanno che circa trecento anni fa, la Russia, aveva la possibilità di diventare l'unica potenza del mondo, estendendosi su due continenti.


Diverse spedizioni lungo tutto l'Impero avevano portato a conquistare vari possedimenti in un altro continente: erano l'Alaska, le isole Aleutine, l'arcipelago Alexander, la fortezza di Elisabetta alle Hawaii ed il famoso Fort Ross della California. Perché la Russia ha perso queste ricchezze?

Nel 1648 Semen Dedznev organizzò una spedizione per l'esplorazione di nuove rotte marittime. Un gruppo di coraggiosi marinai, che presero il largo dalle coste della Siberia, dopo breve tempo, incapparono letteralmente nelle coste americane. A causa della costa rocciosa, una delle scialuppe naufragò, ma fu proprio lì che Dedznev decise di fondare il primo insediamento russo, Kingovej.

Dopo un secolo, il mercante di Irkutsk Gregorij Shelichov decise di ritentare l'impresa di Dedznev, ponendo come obiettivo finale della spedizione, la creazione di un saldo fortino, da cui sarebbe stato possibile partire per esplorare tutta la zona circostante. Il 14 agosto 1784 la flotta delle tre navi, chiamate "i Tre santi", "San Simeone" e "San Michael", raggiunse l'Alaska. Dopo quattro anni di insediamento sull'isola Kodiak, il luogo ricevette ufficialmente il nome di Porto Pavlovskij.

Nel 1799 lì fu fondata la prima città destinata a diventare la Capitale russa d'America. Il primo gruppo di coloni era costituito da 200 russi e 1000 aleuti, che dopo poco si abituarono a chiamare Novo Archangelsk casa.

Nel 1810 in California i possedimenti erano vari e ne approfittò il visionario ricercatore russo Ivan Kuskov. Comprò parte della terra formalmente spagnola dagli abitanti indiani. L'11 settembre del 1812 Kuskov pose la prima pietra della famosa fortezza di Ross, primo avamposto russo più meridionale in Nord America. I primi inquilini del suo insediamento fortificato furono 95 russi e 80 indiani. Con una convenzione anglo-russa del 1825 furono regolati i confini britannici e russi sul continente. Per comodità fu scelta la dorsale delle Montagne Rocciose, che si estendeva per vaste aree deserte. Per ragioni ancora sconosciute, i russi non hanno mai rischiato di attraversare l'altra parte delle montagne, dove per mezzo secolo le vaste pianure non furono attraversate da alcun colono.

Nel gennaio 1841 la fortezza di Ross fu acquistata da John Sutter, intelligente e lungimirante imprenditore americano, successivamente soprannominato "imperatore della California". Allora la resa è stata incondizionata e la Russia ha ufficialmente dichiarato la perdita di interesse per una zona così importante geopoliticamente. Gli storici ancora oggi dibattono strenuamente sulle cause di vendita dell'Alaska. In un modo o nell'altro, nel 1867 il Governo americano acquistò tutta l'Alaska per 7 200 000 dollari. Ed è così che è finita la storia dei russi che hanno perso la loro occasione di estendersi su due o tre continenti.
 

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vendredi, 13 janvier 2017

"The Holy Roman Empire" with Peter H. Wilson

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"The Holy Roman Empire" with Peter H. Wilson

Rana Mitter reads a new history of the Holy Roman Empire written by Chichele Professor of History Peter H. Wilson.

Darío Fernández-Morera, author of 'The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise'

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Darío Fernández-Morera, author of 'The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise'

Focus Today

Darío Fernández-Morera, author of the new book, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain, explains why President Obama is wrong to say that Islam has a proud tradition of tolerance.


Originally aired on theDove TV & Radio 3-10-16
See more at http://thedove.us and http://facebook.com/thedoveonline

 

An Ancient Route Rolls On: Questions For Peter Frankopan, Author Of 'The Silk Roads'

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An Ancient Route Rolls On: Questions For Peter Frankopan, Author Of 'The Silk Roads'

The Silk Roads, A New History of the World, by Peter Frankopan, Hardcover, 645 pages, purchase
 
Ex: http://www.npr.org 

frankopan.jpgThe very mention of the Silk Roads creates an instant image: camel caravans trudging through the high plains and deserts of central Asia, carrying silks, spices and philosophies to Europe and the larger Mediterranean. And while these ancient routes may remain embedded in our imagination, they have, over the past few centuries, slowly faded inIMPORTANCE. The region today is home to despotic regimes, failing states and endless conflict. But historian Peter Frankopan thinks that the Silk Roads "are rising again."

In his new book, The Silk Roads, Frankopan has created something that forces us to sit up and reconsider the world and the way we've always thought about it. Western scholarship, he argues, has long ignored the routes linking Europe to the Pacific, the areas he calls "the axis on which the globe spun." So he has chosen to focus firmly on the Silk Roads, for what he calls "a new history of the world."

The book takes us by surprise right from the start: It begins not with the Greeks or the Romans, but with the Persian Empire — Frankopan writes that the Greeks and Romans, when they thought to expand, moved east toward the riches of Persia, rather than north or west into Europe. In an email conversation, Frankopan tells me that he wanted to explore exchange between the East and the West of everything from ideas and beliefs to food andFASHION. "Incidentally, it's not just luxury goods that I track — silks, textiles, spices, ceramics and slaves — but violence and disease, too," he says. "For example, the pathways followed by the Mongols and the Black Death were identical."

As you worked on this book, what struck you as the most important contributions the Silk Roads made to world history?

One thing that I was particularly interested in is the spread of faith along the Silk Roads. All the great global religions — Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, as well as lots of otherIMPORTANT but less well-known belief systems — spread along the web of routes crisscrossing the spine of Asia.

I was also very struck by the scale of the white slave trade in the early Middle Ages — huge numbers of men, women and children were trafficked from Europe to the east in return for silver. I think readers will be surprised by that. But most of all is the fact that the Silk Roads keep on being involved all the time in more or less everything: they play the lead role in the expeditions of Columbus, who was trying to connect to the trade routes of the east; they were crucial to the origins of World War I — whose origins were firmly based in Asia, even though the trigger came from the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.

There is a profound significance to the origins of the Holocaust, too, for example: Documents relating to German agricultural production and needs show that the decision to invade the Soviet Union was closely linked to taking control of the wheat fields of the rich lands lying north of the Black and Caspian Seas. The failure to "extract" the expected harvests from what is now Ukraine and Southern Russia led to discussions first about how to feed back in German controlled territories and then about who to feed. Those in prison camps found their calories reduced and then cut altogether; the jump to genocide was directly linked to the failure of the campaigns in the east.

We just don't look at this region at all — so have never thought to join up all these dots before.

You write, "We are seeing the signs of the world's center of gravity shifting — back to where it lay for millennia." But some argue that the world's center is shifting not toward the Silk Roads but farther East — toward China, Southeast Asia and India.

I can't speak for those who believe that the center of gravity is moving elsewhere. Many seem to think China and/or India exist in a bubble and can be looked at on their own. But I am much more interested in how China engages with Russia, with Iran, with the Middle East and with Central Asia — as well as with Southeast Asia. And that, by the way, is how China itself sees the world. China's signature foreign policy for the next 30 years is ... essentially the construction of a series of new Silk Roads.

China has dramatically rising energy needs as its middle classes grow in number and prosperity. So pipelines bringing oil and gas from mineral-rich countries like Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Iran have been or are being built to help fuel China's growth. And as a historian, it gives me no small pleasure to realize that those pipelines follow the same paths that traders bringing goods followed 2 1/2 thousand years ago.

Nishant Dahiya is NPR's Asia Editor

jeudi, 12 janvier 2017

Die Konvention von Tauroggen - Gehorsamsverweigerung aus Liebe zum Vaterland

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Die Konvention von Tauroggen - Gehorsamsverweigerung aus Liebe zum Vaterland

 

Hunderttausende bluten für Napoleons Russlandfeldzug

Preußens Niederlage bei Jena und Auerstedt markierte das vorläufige Ende der Souveränität des Staates, welcher in kurz darauf vollständig von Frankreich besiegt wurde und unter die Herrschaft von Napoleon kam. Nach dem Frieden von Tilsit wurde das Königreich in seiner Ausdehnung kurzerhand halbiert und die Grande Armée marschierte siegreich durch Berlin, während das Königshaus von Preußen den Rückzug in die beschnittenen Gebiete im Osten antreten musste. Die Demütigungen, wie beispielsweise der Diebstahl der Quadriga vom Brandenburger Tor, enden nicht mit symbolischen Akten. Anders als die Rheinstaaten im Rheinbund, welche auf Napoleons Seite standen und dessen Monarchen von ihm profitierten, leistete Preußen lange Widerstand. Sowohl rhetorischen als auch militärischen. Für diese Impertinenz sollte es büßen, so wollte es Bonaparte.  Für die nationalen Kräfte in den deutschen Landen war die Unterjochung durch Frankreich nicht hinnehmbar. Heinrich Friedrich Karl von und zum Stein, Carl von Clausewitz, Gerhard von Scharnhorst und andere preußische Reformer, die man den aufklärerischen und nationalen Kräften zuordnen könnte, waren wenig angetan von der Unterordnung unter die französische Kaiserkrone. Es folgte die innere Erneuerung Preußens, sowohl die kulturelle als auch die technologische und zivilgesellschaftliche. Nicht alle Ideen der französischen Revolution wurden östlich des Rheins abgelehnt oder für schlecht befunden. Der springende Punkt war der Frondienst, den man als Deutscher plötzlich zu leisten hatte. Gegenüber einem Staat und Kaiser, den man weder kannte noch liebte. Napoleons Streitkräfte schlugen nach Preußen auch die Österreicher und alsbald wandte er seinen Blick auf das gigantische Russland, welches immer noch als die letzte kontinentale Großmacht gegen Napoleon stand. Wenn Russland besiegt worden wäre, gäbe es keine Macht mehr in Europa die dem französischen Kaiser Paroli hätte bieten können. Das französische Imperium würde dann vom Atlantik bis zum Ural reichen. Oder noch weiter.

Im Jahr 1812 überquerten die Streitkräfte Napoleons die Memel. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt bestehen die Truppen des Kaisers nicht mehr nur aus Franzosen, sondern zur Hälfte aus Polen, Deutschen, Italiener, Balkanvölkern und anderen Hilfstruppen, welche er aus allen eroberten Gebieten zusammengerufen hatte. Die genauen Zahlen sind heute Gegenstand der Debatte. Aber etwa ein Drittel der fast 700.000 Soldaten waren deutschsprachige Landeskinder aus Preußen, Württemberg, Bayern, Sachsen, Österreich, Baden und anderen deutschen Landen, wo die Ablehnung gegenüber Napoleon nicht zuletzt wegen der zehrenden Kampagne im Osten immer größer wurde. Man muss das im historischen Kontext betrachten. Preußen und die meisten anderen europäischen Staaten hatten bereits mehrere Jahre Krieg hinter sich und eine ganze Generation von Männern und auch Frauen war im Rahmen dieser Kriege verletzt, getötet oder anders geschädigt worden. Große Teile der mitteleuropäischen Staaten waren von Schlachten verwüstet und vom Durchmarsch der französischen Armee ausgeplündert worden. Napoleons Truppen bedienten sich auf ihrem Weg durch Europa stets im Umland und erpressten, kauften oder plünderten, um sich zu versorgen. Das war eine gängige Praxis zu dieser Zeit und auch in späteren Kriegen. Viele Familien in den deutschen Staaten hatten mehrere Söhne bereits in den Krieg (egal welchen) gegeben und nicht wenige bliebe auf dem Schlachtfeld. Es ist umso leichter die Ressentiments zu verstehen, wenn das Hinterland das französische Heer weiterhin wirtschaftlich unterstützen muss. Vor allem da es gegen Russland ging, den man eigentlich zu den deutschen Verbündeten zählte. Der preußische König schrieb hierzu am Vorabend des Russlandfeldzuges einen Brief an den Zaren mit dem Inhalt : „Beklagen Sie mich, aber verdammen Sie mich nicht. Vielleicht kommt bald die Zeit, wo wir in engem Bunde vereint handeln werden.

Auch im preußischen Offizierskorps war die Stimmung eher gedrückt. Als gute und treue Soldaten fühlten sich Offiziere wie Ludwig York von Wartenburg ihrem Eid und Herren verpflichtet. Dieser war der preußische König, von dem jedoch alle wussten, dass dieser nicht Befehle im Interesse der Deutschen oder Preußens gab, sondern reiner Befehlsempfänger Napoleons war. Der Verlust deutscher und preußischer Souveränität war den Männern im Felde also durchaus bewusst. Preußen war dem französischen Kaiser verpflichtet – gegen seinen Willen und gegen den Willen des Volkes, welches sich in den preußischen, aber auch in den westlich der Elbe liegenden anderen deutschen Ländereien immer wieder gegen französische Besatzungstruppen erhob. Die Zeit von 1807-1812 war durchweg geprägt von sporadisch aufflammenden kleinen Konflikten innerhalb des gigantischen, von Napoleon eroberten Europas. Die teils sehr blutigen Auseinandersetzungen waren kein Geheimnis und nie war die Herrschaft über Europa für Napoleon eine besonders solide Angelegenheit. Dieser Zustand verschlimmerte sich nur, als seine Truppen nach der Erreichung des von den Russen in Brand gesteckten Moskaus den Rückzug antreten mussten. Für den russischen Winter war man nicht vorbereitet. Der Zar nutzte diese Chance um die napoleonische Armee immer wieder in kleine und größere Gefechte zu verwickeln und zu schwächen. Für die Männer im Dienst des französischen Kaisers waren die Monate der Rückzugsgefechte und Eiseskälte demoralisierend, wie wir es uns kaum noch vorstellen können. Während Hunderttausende für Napoleon starben, wurde auch den an ihren Diensteid gebundenen preußischen bzw. deutschen Offizieren etwas klar. Wenn nicht gehandelt wird und keine Befreiung von der Führung Napoleons vollzogen wird, könnte dies das Ende für die eigenen Soldaten und auch für die deutschen Lande bedeuten. Die desaströse Situation, in welcher sich die Grande Armée befand, war nicht mehr zu leugnen und um zu verhindern, dass man mit Napoleons Größenwahn untergehe, fassten einige mutige Männer einen skandalösen Entschluss.

Skandalös und doch treu – Die Entscheidung von York und ihre Implikationen

Der deutschstämmige Generalmajor Hans Karl von Diebitsch diente Zar Alexander und der russischen Armee. Unerwähnt möchte ich nicht lassen, dass ein nicht unerheblicher Teil der russischen Soldaten ebenfalls zumindest teilweise deutscher Sprache und Abstammung waren, sodass nicht ignoriert werden kann, wie nah sich deutsches Preußen und Russland über die Jahrhunderte hinweg standen. Von Diebitsch war der General, welcher am 30. Dezember in Poscherun (heute Litauen), den preußischen York empfing. Im Vorfeld und im Hintergrund hatten bereits jene Verschwörergruppen, zu denen auch Clausewitz, Seydlitz und andere gehörten, an einem ungeheuerlichen Akt des Verrates gearbeitet. Zumindest empfand es Napoleon als einen solchen Verrat, als York den Waffenstillstand zwischen preußischen Korps und russischer Armee unterzeichnete. Es ist insofern ungeheuerlich, dass ein hoher Offizier, also ein Staatsdiener, es wagt die Außenpolitik seines Staates zu bestimmen. York war sich der Konsequenzen und der illegalen Natur seines Handelns voll bewusst, rechtfertigte sich jedoch auf für uns nicht uninteressante Art und Weise. Im Vordergrund stand zunächst die Rettung der eigenen Soldaten. Denn gegenüber diesen hatte York als Kommandeur eine Fürsorgepflicht, die missachten würde, wenn er sie weiterhin durch den russischen Winter auf französischer Seite trieb, während russische Truppen die seinen von hinten beschossen. Das Leben der eigenen Soldaten zu retten hatte also Gewicht bei seiner Entscheidungsfindung. Danach kommt die Verantwortung vor dem Staat und dem König. York argumentiert so, dass er im erweiterten Sinne des Königs gehandelt habe, der das Bündnis mit Napoleon zutiefst ablehne, aber jetzt aufgrund der Lage nicht anders handeln könne. Da sich die Lage aber an der Front zum Nachteil für Napoleon entwickelt habe, sei nun der Moment gekommen, das Bündnis aufzukündigen und Preußens Unabhängigkeit wiederherzustellen. Er sagte :

„Die Armee will den Krieg gegen Frankreich. Das Volk will ihn, der König will ihn, aber der König hat keinen freien Willen. Die Armee muss ihm diesen Willen freimachen.“

Für ihn ist klar, dass wenn Preußen Napoleon weiterhin folgt, seine Auslöschung als politische und unabhängige Einheit bald darauf eintreten könnte. Dass Napoleon verlieren würde, war also absehbar und ebenso, dass die Sieger über Napoleon darüber bestimmen würden, was mit den Besiegten geschah. Hier erkenne ich einen Dienstethos, der sowohl edel, als auch treu ist.  York erkennt, dass jeder weitere Kampf gegen Russland sinnlos ist und nur mit dem Tod enden kann. Die Freiheit und das Überleben Preußens und damit auch ein Stück deutsche Souveränität sind ihm wichtig. Seine Loyalität gegenüber Napoleon basiert auf einem Kontrakt, den sein König unter Zwang unterzeichnen musste und welcher nicht im Sinne des deutschen Volkes ist. York beruft sich bei seinem Verrat also darauf, dass er eben kein Verräter ist. Zumindest verrät er nicht seinen eigentlichen Dienstherren, das Volk. Ähnlich wie Friedrich der Große, der sich als Erster Diener des Volkes sah. So ist auch York als Staatsdiener nur dem obersten Diener und seinem Träger, dem Volk, verpflichtet. Die Verpflichtung gegenüber Napoleon, einem Fremdherrscher, ist für ihn damit nichtig. Eine Loyalität sticht also die andere aus. Obwohl Napoleon theoretisch sein oberster Befehlshaber gewesen wäre, erkennt er dessen Autorität nicht an, da sie nicht mit dem Willen des eigenen Volkes im Einklang steht.

Der preußische König ist zunächst überrascht, sogar ein wenig erbost über die Anmaßung Yorks. Aber dieses Wagnis ist es, welches in Preußen und dann in ganz Europa die Mühlen einer neuen Erhebung anwirft. Beim Bekanntwerden dieses ungeheuerlichen und unerwarteten Bündnisses zwischen preußischen und russischen Soldaten bricht in Norddeutschland und in Ostpreußen eine nationale Widerstandsbewegung hervor, die nur auf diesen Moment gewartet hat. Zar Alexander kann dieses historische Momentum nutzen um Napoleons Truppen aus Russland heraus zu drängen und mit dem preußischen König den alten Bündnisvertrag mit neuem Leben zu erfüllen. Ein Jahr später stehen dann deutsche und russische Soldaten Seite an Seite in der schicksalhaften Konfrontation bei Leipzig.

19:07 Publié dans Histoire | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : histoire, allemagne, prusse, 1813 | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

jeudi, 05 janvier 2017

Nacional Justicialismo

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Nacional Justicialismo

Ex: http://tercerapn.blogspot.com 


El Movimiento Nacional Justicialista o peronismo es un movimiento de masas argentino creado alrededor de la figura de Juan Domingo Perón que protagonizó los últimos 60 años de la historia de Argentina. El nombre formal del partido es Partido Justicialista.
 
Origen
 
El peronismo surge posteriormente al golpe de estado de 1943 que dio origen a la llamadaRevolución del 43, encabezado por los generales Arturo Rawson y Pedro Pablo Ramírez, y apoyado entre otros por un grupo de jóvenes oficiales del Ejército Argentino nucleados en el Grupo de Oficiales Unidos(GOU), que se oponía a la participación argentina en la Segunda Guerra Mundialsosteniendo la tradicional posición "neutralista"de la Argentina.

El GOU fue un grupo de enlace bastante informal entre jóvenes oficiales superiores que consideraban necesario"restablecer la moral y disciplina dentro del ejército". Este grupo se declaraba en contra del comunismo.

Los fundadores que formaron el núcleo inicial (diecisiete oficiales) eran amigos que habían decidido encontrarse regularmente, el coronel Saavedra y el coronel Mittelbach, porque compartían las mismas inquietudes, concluyendo que era necesario organizar y unificar a los oficiales de todas las guarniciones.

Emilio Ramírez, Juan Domingo Perón, y Urbano de la Vega, fundadores del GOU, formaban parte del estado mayor revolucionario antiyrigoyenista.

El programa del GOU se convirtió finalmente en el programa de la revolución del 43. En realidad, el GOU recién se formaliza operativamente después de la revolución de junio, como una especie de prolongación del ministerio de Guerra del que Perón era secretario. Allí era donde se imprimían las circulares del GOU con los mimeógrafos oficiales. El general Farrell, ministro de Guerra, y su esposa Beatriz Verdún convocaban a los jefes y oficiales para que se encontraran con el mismo Perón.

Situación económica y política del país

La estructura económica del país había cambiado profundamente durante la década del 30, debido a la gran depresión que provocó una reducción importante del comercio internacional. Esto afectó a la economía argentina, basada en la agroexportación, que hubo de reconvertirse mediante el control del mercado de carnes y granos y una acelerada industrialización basada en la sustitución de importaciones de los productos manufacturados. Este proceso fue acompañado de un importante flujo migratorio interno desde las zonas rurales del interior hacia la periferia de las grandes ciudades (fundamentalmente Buenos Aires, Rosario y Córdoba). Estas nuevas masas populares, empleadas en las nuevas industrias y sin antecedentes de sindicalización, son las que constituirán la base del movimiento peronista.

Las primeras elecciones (24 de febrero de 1946)

Se puede fechar el nacimiento del movimiento peronista el 17 de octubre de 1945 cuando las movilizaciones populares organizadas por la Confederación General del Trabajo Argentina de Ángel Borlenghi lograron la liberación de Juan Domingo Perón, quien había sido encarcelado por sectores militares opuestos a su influencia creciente en el gobierno. Desde este momento, Perón se convirtió en el candidato oficial del régimen para las elecciones presidenciales de 1946. Perón se presentó como candidato del Partido Laborista, llevando como vicepresidente a Hortensio Quijano, un radical de la disidente Junta Renovadora. Las elecciones polarizaron al país: por un lado el peronismo, sustentado por el gobierno militar, los sindicalistas de la CGT y grupos yrigoyenistas del radicalismo, U. C. R. Junta Renovadora o FORJA (Donde se encontraban reconocidas personalidades como Arturo Jauretche, Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz, etc.), y de los conservadores de las provincias del interior, y por el otro la Unión Democrática cuya fórmula era Tamborini/Mosca y cuya proclama general, leída durante el acto de cierre de campaña, expresaba como objetivo: "Cerraremos definitivamente el paso a las hordas que agravian la cultura convertidos en agentes de una dictadura imposible…"

La Unión Democrática era impulsada por la Unión Cívica Radical e integrada por los partidos Socialista, Demócrata Progresista, el Partido Comunista y los conservadores de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. En estas elecciones, los Estados Unidos -que no le perdonaban a Perón su neutralidad en la Segunda Guerra Mundial y sus definiciones nacionalistas-, asumieron una participación directa y activa, a través de su embajador Spruille Braden. Este hecho provocó que el peronismo hiciera su campaña en base a la autodeterminación argentina frente a la prepotencia imperialista de Estados Unidos y le permitió acuñar un eslogan que se reveló decisivo: "Braden o Perón". Triunfó Perón, con el 56% de los votos.
 

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La primera presidencia de Perón

Tras asumir la presidencia, Perón comienza rápidamente a consolidar su poder. En lo interno, disuelve al Partido Laborista y lo integra en el nuevo Partido Peronista (llamado brevemente Partido Único de la Revolución), del que Perón es el primer afiliado (29 de enero de 1947), y que contará con tres ramas: la sindical (la CGT, única confederación sindical permitida), la política y, a partir de 1952, al permitirse el voto a la mujer, la rama femenina. Más tarde se considerará a la Juventud Peronista como cuarta rama del Movimiento. Por otra parte se procedió a la remoción vía juicio político de los miembros de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, a excepción del Dr. Tomás Casares y en 1949 se convocaron elecciones para la Asamblea Constituyente que dictó una nueva Constitución acorde con los principios del peronismo.

El gobierno peronista fue duro con la oposición política y sindical, algunos de cuyos dirigentes fueron arrestados a pesar de los fueros parlamentarios, como fue el caso de Ricardo Balbín o Alfredo Palacios. Durante las décadas posteriores, se acusó reiteradamente al gobierno peronista de discriminación político partidaria (discriminación posteriormente aplicada cuando los otros partidos prohibieron el partido peronista durante los 60), sobre todo en el ámbito educativo. Se afirmó que en las universidades nacionales se despedía a los profesores disidentes, y que se impedía ejercer a docentes si no estaban afiliados al partido peronista. Se impulsó a la CGU (Confederación General Universitaria) como representante de los estudiantes en oposición a la mayoritaria FUA (Federación Universitaria Argentina), conducida en ese entonces por el Partido Comunista. Con un criterio similar, se creó la UES (Unión de Estudiantes Secundarios).

A partir de 1950, la situación económica comienza a empeorar y un nuevo ministro de Asuntos Económicos, Alfredo Gómez Morales, aplicó medidas de corte ortodoxo. Aún así, Perón vuelve a triunfar en 1952.

El Estado del bienestar y la economía del primer peronismo

La llegada del peronismo al poder en democracia se produce en plena posguerra mundial, lo cual significaba la debilidad económica de una Europa en ruinas, y el liderazgo creciente de Estados Unidos en el Hemisferio Occidental. En este escenario, Argentina se encontraba por primera vez en su historia en la posición de acreedor de los países centrales, gracias a las exportaciones de carnes y granos a las potencias beligerantes. El principal deudor era el Reino Unido que ante la emergencia declaró su iliquidez, bloqueando la libre disponibilidad de esos montos. El gobierno peronista optó por utilizar esos créditos para adquirir empresas de servicios públicos de capital británico.

La bonanza económica de la Argentina continuaba, impulsada por el creciente mercado que se había formado por la baja de las importaciones provenientes de los países en guerra. Esto permitió al gobierno aplicar una vasta política de bienestar que incluía la efectivizacion de nuevos derechos sociales, como períodos de vacaciones y descanso, planes de vivienda, inversiones en salud y educación, etcétera. Estas conquistas sociales fueron ampliamente capitalizadas por las figuras de Perón y su esposa, Eva Perón, que manejaba una fundación de asistencia social financiada principalmente con fondos estatales y algunos aportes empresarios. Las nacionalizaciones y estatizaciones de los servicios públicos, como los ferrocarriles británicos, fueron conquistas de soberanía e independencia económica.

No obstante, el contexto mundial pronto dejó de ser favorable ya que los Estados Unidos mediante el Plan Marshall, comenzó a ubicar sus excedentes agrícolas en Europa limitando el acceso al mercado de los alimentos argentinos.

A partir de 1950, la situación económica comienza a empeorar y un nuevo ministro de Asuntos Económicos, Alfredo Gómez Morales, aplicó medidas de corte ortodoxo, como el ajuste del gasto público.
 

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Situación político-económica durante la segunda presidencia de Juan Domingo Perón

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Argentina llenó sus arcas de dinero mediante la exportación de materias primas (cereales y carnes, principalmente) a los países beligerantes europeos (sobre todo a Gran Bretaña). Fue una época de gran prosperidad para el país. Sin embargo, dicha situación cambió, ya que Estados Unidos colocó sus excedentes agrícolas en Europa, lo cual generó que se limitaran las exportaciones de Argentina. Además, en 1949, los mercados se retrajeron y esto trajo aparejado una gran reducción en las exportaciones argentinas (de productos primarios). Por otra parte, las reservas acumuladas se consumieron desmesuradamente, finalizando de este modo, con el período de gran prosperidad económica. La crisis tocaba la puerta del país.

No obstante a lo acontecido, el gobierno tenía la esperanza de que el desarrollo de la industria sacara al país de la situación en la cual se encontraba. Pero para ello, era necesario el uso de combustibles, acero, maquinarias y demás repuestos que el país, en ese momento, carecía. Por ende, tuvo que acudir a la cruel decisión de importarlos. Por este motivo, el desarrollo industrial no resultó fácil, y desencadenó las peores consecuencias: inflación y desocupación.

Para romper el esquema y para cambiar las circunstancias, es decir, para salir de la situación, en 1952, el gobierno decidió llevar a cabo un segundo plan Quinquenal, el cual tuvo vigencia entre 1953 y 1957. Este, planteaba básicamente como objetivo fundamental, asegurar el desarrollo de la economía social por medio de actividades que ayuden a gestar la independencia económica del país. Con este fin, el Estado se reservaba el manejo del comercio exterior, guiado por el propósito de defender la producción Nacional y obtener términos de intercambios justos y equitativos. Su empresa estaba también orientada a la consolidación y diversificación de los mercados de importación y exportación, en los cuales, obviamente, se veía involucrado el país.

Además se hicieron algunos ajustes, que consistieron en: restringir el consumo interno, por lo cual fueron eliminados subsidios a diversos bienes de uso popular; se estableció una veda parcial al consumo de carne; y se levantó el congelamiento de los alquileres. Por otra parte se proclamó "la vuelta al campo", donde el Instituto Argentino de Promoción del Intercambio (IAPI) invirtió su mecanismo y emprendió la tarea de estimular a los productores rurales con precios retributivos.

Según Luis Alberto Romero, "Esta política apuntaba a aumentar la disponibilidad de divisas para seguir impulsando el desarrollo del sector industrial."

Para desarrollar el sector industrial y salir de la crisis (la cual había generado disconformidad en los sindicatos y en el Ejército) se limitó el crédito industrial y el uso de las divisas, y se dio prioridad a las empresas grandes, sobre todo, a las industrias de bienes de capital. Uno de estos casos, fue la reactivación de la empresa siderúrgica SOMISA. Otra medida consistió en el congelamiento por dos años de los contratos colectivos de trabajo. Otro ‘gesto’ importante del Estado fue que, en 1955, incentivó que empresarios y sindicalistas se juntaran para discutir sobre temas inherentes a las relaciones laborales. También, el gobierno, se enfocó en atraer capitales extranjeros. Un proyecto de gran importancia fue el petrolero. Argentina realizó un acuerdo con una filial de la Standard Oilde California, que consistía en la explotación de 40.000 (cuarenta mil) hectáreas en la provincia de Santa Cruz.

Todas estas medidas generaron la reducción de la inflación, y el re-equilibrio de la balanza de pagos. Pese a eso, no se obtuvieron cambios significativos en lo que respecta al agro y a la industria.

El Golpe militar de 1955

Sucesivos enfrentamientos con la iglesia y con los sectores más conservadores del agro y la industria, enrarecen el clima político.

El 16 de septiembre de 1955, el ejército que se identificaba con el liberalismo, al mando de Eduardo Lonardi, produjo el tercer Golpe de Estado en la Argentina.

Esos sectores comenzaron a conspirar, entonces, para derrocar a Perón. Organizaron un golpe de Estado con la decisiva participación de oficiales del Ejército y principalmente de la Marina. Las razones del descontento anidaban en el creciente enfrentamiento de Perón con la Iglesia Católica.

En verdad, la crisis económica había precipitado también la puja distributiva: el sector más rico y propietario, del campo o la industria, no estaba dispuesto a tolerar una distribución del ingreso semejante: el 50 por ciento del PBI pasaba a los trabajadores.

Los gobiernos que se sucedieron entre 1955 y 1973 -tanto civiles como militares-, mantuvieron la proscripción del Peronismo, prohibiendo la participación política del partido y del movimiento.

desca3.jpgBombardeo a Plaza de Mayo

El primer intento golpista ocurrió el 16 de junio de 1955. Con el objetivo de matar a Perón, aviones de la Marina y de la Fuerza Aérea, con escaso apoyo del Ejército, bombardearon la Plaza de Mayo. Fue una masacre de ciudadanos de a pie. Se estimó en unos mil muertos, aunque las cifras oficiales nunca se conocieron. Perón se había refugiado en el Ministerio de Guerra y los conspiradores finalmente se rindieron.

Ese accionar tensó aún más la furia de los peronistas. Esa noche, varias iglesias fueron incendiadas. Perón hizo algunas concesiones entonces: defenestró a varios ministros para aplacar la furia opositora. Pero era tarde. El 16 de septiembre estalló un levantamiento en Córdoba encabezado por el general Eduardo Lonardi y secundado por el general Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. Las tropas leales a Perón no pudieron sofocarlo. La Marina, liderada por el almirante Isaac Rojas, encabezó el golpe contra Perón: sus naves bloquearon Buenos Aires y su estado mayor amenazó con volar los depósitos de combustible de La Plata y Dock Sud.

El Ministro de Guerra, General Lucero, pidió parlamentar y leyó una carta en la que Perón solicitaba la negociación de un acuerdo. La carta no hablaba de renuncia, sí de renunciamiento, pero la Junta de Generales Superiores del Ejército decidió considerarla como una renuncia y negociar con los golpistas, mientras miles de peronistas fieles, encolumnados detrás de la CGT pedían armas para defender a lo que consideraban su gobierno.

El 20 de septiembre Perón se refugió en la embajada del Paraguay y en la Cañonera que lo llevó a Asunción y a lo que sería el comienzo de su largo exilio de casi 17 años.

Ideología

El peronismo ha acogido numerosas tendencias ideológicas que han entrado permanentemente en conflicto con el correr de los años.

Desde su aparición en la escena política nacional, el peronismo fue definido por Perón como un Movimiento Nacional, que englobaba un sector social denominado "clase trabajadora". Este apelativo, que inicialmente fue un eufemismo utilizado por el General para distinguir su concepción "nacional y popular" de los criterios "marxistas proletarios", se convirtió en un breve lapso en una definición doctrinaria que afirmaba para el peronismo la oposición a la lucha de clases. En ese marco, el Movimiento Peronista comprendía (idealmente) a todos aquellos que podían coincidir con los conceptos de Justicia Social, Soberanía Política e Independencia Económica. Esta interpretación de Perón posibilitó el inesperado crecimiento de su estructura política y la llevó a niveles de representatividad popular que jamás se habían alcanzado en América Latina.

Sin embargo, para mantener esa situación era necesario concentrar permanentemente la posibilidad de generar doctrina, ya que la masividad del movimiento exigía contentar y contener a sectores con intereses contradictorios. La interpretación de la realidad no podía entonces quedar en manos de una estructura colegiada, que obligatoriamente hubiera generado conflictos y disidencias internas y externas reduciendo a mediano plazo el caudal de poder del Movimiento. Perón concentra sobre sí esa tarea con exclusividad, generando un Consejo Superior del cual era, en la práctica, el único integrante con voz y voto. Asimismo, si entre el Consejo Superior y las bases del Movimiento existieran intermediarios, la doctrina sería mediatizada por ellos y adecuada a sus intereses sectoriales, lo que terminaría encorsetando al propio Perón.

Se adopta entonces el modelo de comunicación directa entre el líder y las masas: un movimiento absolutamente horizontal, con un único emergente. Para confirmar este análisis, surge claramente el ejemplo de Evita, que en poco tiempo comienza a cumplir ese rol de intermediaria entre el conductor y el pueblo. El discurso y el accionar de Evita mediatizan la doctrina hasta tal punto que el movimiento se sectoriza rápidamente. Comienza a generarse la división de intereses que Perón procuraba evitar. La absoluta inclinación de Evita hacia los llamados "descamisados", genera resquemores, miedo e indignación entre los militares, la iglesia y la clase media, que inicialmente aceptaban a Perón, en tanto su proyecto fuera difusamente humanitario y "justicialista".

La dicotomía peronista entre Movimiento y Partido

El movimiento, en tanto masivo, garantiza el poder. Pero ese poder se formaliza en el gobierno y, por consiguiente, en una estructura capaz de ganar elecciones. Esa estructura no puede ser un partido tradicional -en la medida que sus integrantes (generalmente de clase media) empezarían a definir políticas-, ni un partido revolucionario, porque obligaría a adoptar una ideología obrera (y el abandono de la "Tercera Posición"). Surge así la concepción peronista del partido como "herramienta electoral".

En el campo de las relaciones internacionales, Perón abogó siempre por esa tercera posición equidistante entre elcomunismo soviético y el capitalismo estadounidense, lo que lo llevó a apoyar al Movimiento de Países No Alineados y buscar puntos de contacto con Gamal Abdel Nasser y Jawaharlal Nehru. Hizo siempre profesión de fe latinoamericanista ("El año 2000 nos encontrará unidos o dominados") y cultivó buenas relaciones con gobernantes de la región: Alfredo Stroessner de Paraguay, Marcos Pérez Jiménez (Venezuela), Omar Torrijos (Panamá) (todos le darían asilo luego del golpe de estado de 1955 antes de recalar en la España de Francisco Franco), así como con el Partido Nacional de Uruguay y el gobierno de Carlos Ibáñez del Campo en Chile.

descamisados.jpgLas Veinte Verdades Peronistas

"Estas son las Veinte Verdades del Justicialismo Peronista. He querido reunirlas así para que cada uno de ustedes las grabe en sus mentes y sus corazones; para que las propalen como un mensaje de amor y justicia por todas partes; para que vivan felices según ellas y también para que mueran felices en su defensa si fuera necesario..." (Juan Perón, 17 de octubre de 1950)

  1. La verdadera democracia es aquella donde el gobierno hace lo que el pueblo quiere y defiende un solo interés: el del pueblo.
  2. El Peronismo es esencialmente popular. Todo círculo político es antipopular, y por lo tanto, no es peronista.
  3. El peronista trabaja para el Movimiento. El que en su nombre sirve a un círculo, o a un caudillo, lo es sólo de nombre.
  4. No existe para el Peronismo más que una sola clase de hombres: los que trabajan.
  5. En la Nueva Argentina el trabajo es un derecho que crea la dignidad del hombre y es un deber, porque es justo que cada uno produzca por lo menos lo que consume.
  6. Para un Peronista de bien, no puede haber nada mejor que otro Peronista.
  7. Ningún Peronista debe sentirse más de lo que es, ni menos de lo que debe ser. Cuando un Peronista comienza a sentirse más de lo que es, empieza a convertirse en oligarca.
  8. En la acción política la escala de valores de todo peronista es la siguiente: primero la Patria, después el Movimiento, y luego los Hombres.
  9. La política no es para nosotros un fin, sino sólo el medio para el bien de la Patria, que es la felicidad de sus hijos y la grandeza nacional.
  10. Los dos brazos del Peronismo son la Justicia Social y la Ayuda Social. Con ellos damos al Pueblo un abrazo de justicia y de amor.
  11. El Peronismo anhela la unidad nacional y no la lucha. Desea héroes pero no mártires.
  12. En la Nueva Argentina los únicos privilegiados son los niños.
  13. Un gobierno sin doctrina es un cuerpo sin alma. Por eso el Peronismo tiene su propia doctrina política, económica y social: el Justicialismo.
  14. El Justicialismo es una nueva filosofía de vida simple, práctica, popular, profundamente cristiana y profundamente humanista.
  15. Como doctrina política, el Justicialismo realiza el equilibrio del derecho del individuo con la comunidad.
  16. Como doctrina económica, el Justicialismo realiza la economía social, poniendo el capital al servicio de la economía y ésta al servicio del bienestar social.
  17. Como doctrina social, el Justicialismo realiza la Justicia Social, que da a cada persona su derecho en función social.
  18. Queremos una Argentina socialmente justa, económicamente libre, y políticamente soberana.
  19. Constituimos un gobierno centralizado, un Estado organizado y un pueblo libre.
  20. En esta tierra lo mejor que tenemos es el Pueblo.

Influencia del peronismo en la cultura argentina

Desde sus orígenes el peronismo estuvo fuertemente relacionado con la cultura popular en Argentina, partiendo de la propia Eva Perón, actriz con cierto éxito. Tuvo la adhesión de intelectuales (Leopoldo Marechal, Rodolfo Puiggrós, Juan José Hernández Arregui, Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz, Arturo Jauretche, John William Cooke); de músicos, compositores y deportistas (Hugo del Carril, Enrique Santos Discépolo, Homero Manzi, José María Gatica), y juristas, médicos y profesionales (Arturo Sampay, Ramón Carrillo).
 
La televisión en Argentina se inició el 17 de octubre de 1951 con la transmisión del acto del Día de la Lealtad Peronista en la Plaza de Mayo. Durante los dos primeros mandatos presidenciales de Perón, el cine argentino tuvo un importante desarrollo y difusión a nivel hispanoamericano, generando obras maestras como Las aguas bajan turbias de Hugo del Carril.

mercredi, 04 janvier 2017

1944 : le corps expéditionnaire brésilien en Italie

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Erich Körner-Lakatos :

1944 : le corps expéditionnaire brésilien en Italie

Plusieurs congrès panaméricains ont eu lieu dans les années 1939 et 1940. Les négociateurs se sont mis d’accord pour respecter le principe de la « solidarité hémisphérique », laquelle consistait en une nouvelle doctrine de Monroe, assortie de l’interdiction de toute menée belliqueuse dans une zone de 300 miles autour du Nouveau Monde. Toute attaque perpétrée par un Etat non américain contre un pays de l’hémisphère occidental serait considérée comme une attaque contre l’ensemble des Etats signataires.

feb.jpgDans la nuit du 22 août 1942, les torpilles d’un sous-marin allemand envoient au fond de la mer cinq vapeurs brésiliens patrouillant le long des côtes. Il y a 610 morts. Quelques heures après ce terrible incident, le Brésil déclare la guerre à l’Allemagne et à l’Italie. Le parallèle avec la première guerre mondiale saute aux yeux. A cette époque-là, en 1917, le torpillage de navires civils, dont le navire amiral de la flotte commerciale brésilienne, le Paranà, par des sous-marins de Guillaume II, fut aussi considéré comme un casus belli par le Brésil.

En déclarant la guerre aux puissances de l’Axe Rome-Berlin, le plus grand Etat d’Amérique latine met un terme à sa politique de neutralité. Dans le fond, le Président brésilien Getùlio Vargas préfèrerait garder son pays hors du conflit. Depuis des mois, cet excellent tacticien évite de faire le jeu des Etats-Unis et fait monter les enchères pour monnayer sa participation à la guerre.

Au Brésil, à l’époque, il y a beaucoup de sympathisants de l’Axe : le chef de l’état-major général, Goes Monteiro et une bonne part du corps des officiers refusent toute participation à la guerre mondiale. Le ministre de la guerre Enrico Gaspar Dutra rejette la proposition américaine de construire des bases sur le territoire brésilien. Dutra parle un langage sans ambigüités : « Si Washington débarque des troupes sans en avoir reçu l’autorisation préalable, les militaires brésiliens ouvriront le feu ».

Vargas, habile tacticien, donne à réfléchir à ses généraux : si le Brésil participe au conflit, des capitaux américains couleront à flot dans le pays, permettant notamment de construire le gigantesque complexe sidérurgique de Volta Redonda dans l’Etat de Rio de Janeiro, ce qui constituera un atout majeur pour le développement futur du Brésil. Grâce à la construction de ce complexe, il sera possible d’exploiter les immenses réserves de minerais de l’intérieur du pays. L’économie brésilienne recevra là un formidable coup de fouet et les 93.000 hommes des forces armées feront l’expérience du combat sur le théâtre des opérations en Europe.

Cette expérience acquise sera de toute première importance face au rival du Brésil, l’Argentine, où un gouvernement militaire intransigeant et favorable à l’Axe maintient le pays dans la neutralité. En effet, il a fallu attendre les toutes dernières semaines de la guerre en Europe pour convaincre enfin Buenos Aires d’envoyer une déclaration de guerre toute formelle à l’Allemagne. Ce sera fait le 27 mars 1945. L’Argentine sera ainsi le dernier pays à avoir déclaré la guerre au Reich. D’autres pays latino-américains avaient déclaré la guerre à Berlin en février 1945, notamment le Venezuela, le 16 février. En revanche, les pays plus inféodés aux Etats-Unis en Amérique centrale et dans les Caraïbes avaient déjà formellement déclaré la guerre aux puissances de l’Axe les 11 et 12 décembre 1941 (Cuba, la République Dominicaine, le Guatemala, le Nicaragua, Haïti, le Costa Rica, le Honduras et El Salvador). Ce qui fut le plus mobilisateur dans ces déclarations de guerre fut bien sûr la possibilité de confisquer les avoirs allemands et italiens.

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En entrant en guerre aux côtés des Etats-Unis, Vargas, de figurant instable, se mue automatiquement en un allié important. Même Churchill change d’opinion à son sujet : il le méprisait et le traitait de « caudillo aux petits pieds » ; en un tournemain, il devient le « combattant d’avant-garde de la solidarité panaméricaine ».

En très peu de temps, le Brésil se transforme en l’une des principales bases de ravitaillement et d’approvisionnement des alliés occidentaux. Natal, la ville située sur la pointe extrême-orientale du pays, devient l’aéroport militaire le plus vaste du monde. Le gouvernement de Rio livre des matières premières stratégiques (du fer, du manganèse, du nickel, du zinc) et des quantités impressionnantes de viande et de céréales aux belligérants occidentaux.

Ce ne sera pas tout. Vargas met également des troupes à disposition. Equipé et entraîné par les Anglo-Américains, un contingent s’embarque pour l’Italie entre juin et septembre 1944 et engage le combat aux côtés de la 5ème Armée américaine du Général Clark. La « Força Expeditionària Brasileira » (FEB) sera placée sous les ordres du Général Mascarenhas de Morais et comptera dans ses rangs 25.300 hommes d’infanterie et un escadron de chasseurs de la force aérienne.

La FEB s’est bien battue contre les troupes solidement éprouvées de la Wehrmacht, toutefois après avoir subi des pertes sensibles au début des engagements. A l’automne 1944, l’avance des troupes alliées est bloquée au nord de Florence. Les Allemands se replient et s’arcboutent sur la « Ligne Gothique » entre La Spezia et Rimini et tiennent le front jusqu’à la Pâque 1945.

Les soldats brésiliens passeront l’hiver sur leurs positions dans les Apennins. Le climat est rude pour ces soldats venus des tropiques et la FEB enregistre de nombreuses pertes dues aux gelures. Le 9 avril 1945, les Américains lancent leur contre-offensive du printemps. Les troupes brésiliennes y participent et avancent, lors de la phase finale de la campagne d’Italie, en direction d’Alessandria et de Turin. A la fin du mois d’avril 1945, la 148ème Division d’infanterie de la Wehrmacht se rend aux Brésiliens.

Les combats de la FEB se sont étendus sur huit mois et ont coûté la vie à 454 soldats. 2722 autres ont été blessés. Les morts de ce corps expéditionnaire reposent dans un cimetière militaire à Pistoia, une petite ville de Toscane. Au Brésil, un monument à Rio rappelle leur sacrifice, de même qu’un musée à Curitiba (dans l’Etat de Paranà).

Erich Körner-Lakatos.

(Article paru dans « zur Zeit », Vienne, http://www.zurzeit.at , n°36/2016).

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L’Estado Novo de Vargas

Getùlio Dornelles Vargas est arrivé au pouvoir au Brésil en 1930. Fin novembre 1935, les communistes se soulèvent à Rio. Leur rébellion est rapidement anéantie. Le Président n’est pas plus tendre avec l’extrême-droite : les activistes de l’Açao Integralista Brasileira (Action Intégraliste Brésilienne : AIB), vêtus de chemises vertes, essaient en mai 1938 de renverser le président, en prenant son palais d’assaut. Vargas n’admet pas cette rupture de la paix civile, considère que cette rébellion est un affront à sa personne et mate cruellement l’insurrection dirigée par Plinio Salgado, théoricien et animateur du « fascisme intégraliste ».

Le 10 novembre 1937, Vargas proclame, par décret, l’instauration de l’ Estado Novo (l’Etat nouveau), aux traits autoritaires et corporatistes : l’article 180 de la nouvelle constitution admet très nettement le « principe du chef ». Le modèle de Vargas est celui de la mère patrie portugaise, dirigée par Antonio de Oliveira Salazar. Il y a néanmoins une différence : Salazar tient son autorité de Dieu, sans fausse modestie. Vargas, lui, dit se contenter de tenir la sienne du peuple.  

Vargas se pose comme un nationaliste brésilien. C’est pourquoi, dès avril 1938, il interdit les activités de la NSDAP allemande à l’étranger qui connaissait un indéniable succès au sein de la minorité allemande. L’Etat nouveau entend « brasilianiser » les immigrants. Tout enseignement en une langue autre que le portugais est interdit pour les enfants de moins de 14 ans. Les autorités reçoivent l’ordre d’éviter toute concentration d’immigrants de même nationalité. Ces mesures concernent également les minorités allemandes dans le sud du pays (EKL).

mardi, 03 janvier 2017

Alemanni

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Alemanni

Definition

Ex: http://www.ancient.eu 

The Alemanni (also known as the Alamanni and the Alamans, meaning "All Men" or "Men United") were a confederacy of Germanic-speaking people who occupied the regions south of the Main and east of the Rhine rivers in present-day Germany. Many historians claim that the Alemanni first enter the historical record in 213 CE when Cassius Dio records the campaigns of Caracalla and his duplicitous dealings with the Alemanni. It is true that the name "Alemanni" first appears in Cassius Dio but, if one accepts that the Alemanni and the Suebi (or Suevi, who appear in earlier records) were the same (as not all do), then their first mention comes in 98 CE in Tacitus' Germania. They were a constant threat to the Roman Empire from 213 CE until they were defeated by Julian at the Battle of Strasbourg in 357 CE and then again by Valentinian I in 367 CE. After the Battle of Strasbourg, Julian entered into treaties with the Franks of Gaul who were then left alone by Rome. They were able to stabilize their communities and grow in power until, in 496 CE, the Frankish king Clovis conquered the Alemanni tribes and absorbed them into his kingdom. After this, their name lived on in the language of the region they had once inhabited and in the name given to Germany, Allemagne, in French and other languages.

THE ALEMANNI WERE STILL A FORMIDABLE FORCE WHEN THEY JOINED THE FORCES OF ATTILA THE HUN AND BATTLED THE ROMANS IN 451 CE.

APPEARANCE & RELIGION

The Roman senator and historian Tacitus (56-117 CE) wrote of the Suevi in the 1st century CE, claiming they controlled the better part of the region known as Germania. He links the Alemanni with the Hermunduri, another Germanic tribe, but this claim has been contested by modern-day scholarship. The Suevi Tacitus depicts sound very much like the later Alemanni, in that they were a confederation of different tribes, which may have even included the Cherusci (famous for their leader Arminius' destruction of Varus' three legions in Teutoburger Wald in 9 CE). Tacitus is the first writer to note the Suevi's distinctive hair styles and religious practices. He writes:

We have now to speak of the Suevi; who do not compose a single state, like the Catti or Tencteri, but occupy the greatest part of Germany and are still distributed into different names and nations, although all hearing the common appellation of Suevi. It is characteristic of this people to turn their hair sideways, and tie it beneath the poll in a knot.

By this mark the Suevi are distinguished from the rest of the Germans; and the freemen of the Suevi from the slaves. Among other nations, this mode, either on account of some relationship with the Suevi, or from the usual propensity to imitation, is sometimes adopted; but rarely, and only during the period of youth.

The Suevi, even till they are hoary, continue to have their hair growing stiffly backwards, and often it is fastened on the very crown of the head. The chiefs dress it with still greater care and in this respect they study ornament, though of an undebasing kind. For their design is not to make love, or inspire it; they decorate themselves in this manner as they proceed to war, in order to seem taller and more terrible; and dress for the eyes of their enemies (Germania, 38).

Regarding religion, Tacitus writes that the Suevi were pagan and seem to have practiced a form of Druidism. Their chiefs were drawn from a tribe in the confederation known as Semnones who also served as high priests:

The Semnones assert themselves to be the most ancient and noble of the Suevi; and their pretensions are confirmed by religion. At a stated time, all the people of the same lineage assemble by their delegates in a wood, consecrated by the auguries of their forefathers and ancient terror, and there by the public slaughter of a human victim celebrate the horrid origin of their barbarous rites. Another kind of reverence is paid to the grove. No person enters it without being bound with a chain, as an acknowledgment of his inferior nature, and the power of the deity residing there. If he accidentally falls, it is not lawful for him to be lifted or to rise up; they roll themselves out along the ground. The whole of their superstition has this import: that from this spot the nation derives its origin; that here is the residence of the Deity, the Governor of all, and that everything else is subject and subordinate to him. These opinions receive additional authority from the power of the Semnones, who inhabit a hundred cantons, and, from the great body they compose, consider themselves as the head of the Suevi (Germania, 39).

The religious practices centered on chthonic locales, then, where a central deity held sway. Rivers, streams, glades, and valleys were often chosen as sacred ground for the energies which manifested themselves in these locales. As with many other ancient civilizations, the Suevi believed the soul had to cross a body of water to reach the afterlife and that the soul lived on after death. Suevi/Alemanni grave excavations have revealed that they were buried fully dressed and with personal items that they would need in the next world. These burial practices continued after they converted to Christianity sometime between the 6th and 8th centuries CE although, of course, their religious practices changed dramatically.

THE ALEMANNI & ROME

Although the Suevi have been identified with the later Alemanni, historians caution against equating the two without recognizing their differences over the centuries which separate Tacitus' account (98 CE) from Cassius Dio's (c. 229 CE). The scholar Guy Halsall writes, "It is unlikely that the situation which pertained in the mid-first century was at all relevant to the late Roman period. Tacitus' Germania is a minefield probably best avoided [in this regard]" (121). The scholar Peter Heather comments on this also, stating how unified the Alemanni appear in the work of Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325-391 CE) while, "One of the central points brought home by even the quickest read of Tacitus' Germania is just how fragmented, in political terms, the Germanic world was at that date" (36). It is for this reason that historians usually cite Cassius Dio's account as the first mention of the Alemanni and ignore Tacitus' earlier description of the Suevi.

By the time of Dio's account, the Alemanni were largely Romanized from their long acquaintance with the Romans. Halsall writes how, in the border region of the Danube and the Roman Empire,

some of the Alemanni, who it has been suggested were formed at least partly by the Romans themselves from inhabitants of the agri decumates [a term possibly meaning 10 agricultural regions]and authorised barbarian settlers, occupied former Roman villa sites, such as at Wurmlingen in Baden Wurttemberg (128).

The Alemanni at this time wore Roman attire and emulated Roman social customs. Even so, they were not 'Romans' in the accepted sense of that word and maintained their own language and culture. Therefore, when they asked the emperor Caracalla for help against a neighboring tribe in 213 CE, he saw no reason why he should not conquer them instead. Cassius Dio writes:

Antoninus [Caracalla] made a campaign against the Alamanni and whenever he saw a spot suitable for habitation, he would order, "There let a fort be erected. There let a city be built." And he gave these places names relating to himself, though the local designations were not changed; for some of the people were unaware of the new names and others supposed he was jesting.  Consequently he came to feel contempt for these people and would not spare even them, but accorded treatment befitting the bitterest foes to the very people whom he claimed to have come to help. For he summoned their men of military age, pretending that they were to serve as mercenaries, and then at a given signal — by raising aloft his own shield — he caused them all to be surrounded and cut down, and he sent horsemen round about and arrested all the others (78.13.4).

Whether the Alemanni were particularly hostile to Rome before this is not known, but they became one of Rome's most bitter enemies afterwards.

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ENGAGEMENTS AGAINST ROME

  • 256 CE: Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594 CE) famously wrote of the Alemanni invasion of Gaul in 256 CE under their king Chrocus. Chrocus led his army across the land, destroying the cities, churches, towns, and slaughtering the inhabitants until he was defeated at Arles and executed. Surviving members of his army were then either killed or absorbed into the Roman ranks as mercenaries.
  • 259 CE: The Alemanni invaded Italy, ravaging the fertile Po Valley, until they were defeated at the Battle of Mediolanum by a Roman force led by emperor Gallienus.
  • 268 CE: The Battle of Benacus was fought in 268/269 CE between the emperor Claudius II (supported by the later Emperor Aurelian) and the Alemanni. The Alemanni, allied with the Juthungi, invaded northern Italy and were met at Benacus by the Roman forces. The Romans again decisively defeated the Alemanni, killing most of them and scattering the rest.
  • 271 CE: The Alemanni and Juthungi again invaded Italy, while the emperor Aurelian was busy repulsing Vandals on the Danube frontier. He marched his forces to meet the Alemanni threat but was ambushed and defeated at the Battle of Placentia. This defeat resulted in widespread panic throughout Rome, as the Juthungi marched toward the city which had no sizeable force to protect it. Aurelian regrouped, however, and chased the Juthungi, finally meeting them at the Battle of Fano where he defeated them completely, driving them into the Metaurus River where many of them drowned. The surviving Juthungi then sued for a peace which Aurelian rejected. He pursued them and their Alemanni allies and destroyed most of the force at the Battle of Pavia. Those Alemanni who survived were hunted down and killed trying to escape back home through the province of Raetia. Although he had stopped the invasion and destroyed the enemy, Aurelian recognized the need for better defenses for Rome and so ordered a new and stronger wall built around the city.
  • 298 CE: The emperor Constantius defeated the Alemanni twice at the Battle of Lingones and then again at the Battle of Vindonissa.
  • 356 CE: Julian, commanding his first military force (prior to becoming emperor), was surprised and defeated by the Alemanni at the Battle of Reims.
  • 357 CE: Julian defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Strasbourg, completely overwhelming their forces and capturing one of their most important leaders, Chnodomar (also known as Chnodomarius) who had mobilized the Alemanni for battle and led them from the front. Although Julian's victory subdued the Alemanni and allowed him to march into Germania, re-build and garrison Roman forts, and force tribute from the tribes, it did not destroy the Alemanni or disperse them. Peter Heather writes:

The defeat of Chnodomarius did not mean the total destruction of the alliance at whose head he had stood, as the defeats of his first-century counterparts such as Arminius and Maroboduus had done three centuries before. Not only were many of the lesser Alamannic kings who had participated in the battle left in place by Julian's diplomacy, but, within a decade of the battle, a new pre-eminent leader, Vadomarius, was worrying the Romans. He was skillfully removed by assassination, but then a third appeared in his place: Macrinus. Ammianus records three separate attempts by one of Julian's successors, Valentinian I, to eliminate Macrinus by capture and/or assassination, but eventually, pressed by events further east, the emperor gave in. Roman and Alamann met in the middle of the Rhine for a water-borne summit, where the emperor acknowledged Macrinus' pre-eminence among the Alamanni. Unlike in the first century, even major military defeat was not enough to destroy the larger Alamannic confederation (40-41).

alemanni1.jpgThe "major military defeat" Heather refers to is not only the Battle of Strasbourg but the later Battle of Solicinium in 367 CE, in which Valentinian I defeated the Alemanni in the southwestern region of Germany. Even though he was victorious, the Alemanni were by no means broken and were still a formidable force some 80 years later when they joined the forces of Attila the Hun and took part in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains against the Romans under Flavius Aetius in 451 CE. Even so, the Battle of Strasbourg severely limited their abilities to threaten Rome for years after. The historian Roger Collins writes,

This single battle really turned the tide as far as the Alaman penetration of Gaul was concerned. It broke the Alamannic confederacy of tribes that had largely been built up and held together by the military credibility of Chnodomar, and for the first time enabled the Romans to take the initiative…Threatened with a Roman invasion of their own territory, the Alamans sought a truce (35).

Again, however, it must be noted that the confederacy was not disbanded nor did the Alemanni seem to consider themselves a conquered people.

THE FRANKISH CONQUEST OF THE ALEMANNI

First Julian, and then Valentinian I, entered into treaties with the confederacy of the people known as the Franks ("the fierce people"). In an effort to maintain the newly restored Roman city of Cologne, Julian blockaded the territory of the Franks, depriving them of much-needed trade goods, until they agreed to his terms. Collins comments on this, writing:

It is notable that Julian made no attempt to penetrate the marshy lands north of the Meuse that the Franks had occupied, and their continuing occupation of this area was tacitly accepted by the Romans. From this small start the subsequent Frankish occupation of all of Gaul would develop. This, it might be said, was `the birth of France'. In 357/8, however, what was achieved was a treaty of federation: Frankish occupation of Roman territory was accepted in return for their helping to defend the region (35).

This arrangement was good for the Franks, who began to steadily flourish, but not as beneficial to the Alemanni. By the time the Alemanni fought alongside the Huns in 451 CE at the Catalaunian Plains, the Franks had become powerful enough to be counted as allies of the Romans under Aetius. The Franks were united under the reign of their first king, Clovis I (466-511 CE), who then expanded the boundaries of Gaul to conquer western Europe. The Alemanni continued to inhabit the region of Germania until they were defeated by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 CE and were subjugated by the Franks. Afterwards, some were assimilated into Frankish culture and took up residence in Gaul, while others continued to live in their former region under Frankish rule. Their name is remembered today in the Alemannic dialect of German, and the word for 'Germany' (Allemagne, Alemania) in many modern-day languages.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

A freelance writer and part-time Professor of Philosophy at Marist College, New York, Joshua J. Mark has lived in Greece and Germany and traveled through Egypt. He teaches ancient history, writing, literature, and philosophy.

dimanche, 01 janvier 2017

The Siege of Malta Knights of St John vs Ottoman Empire

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The Siege of Malta Knights of St John vs Ottoman Empire

This show looks at the rising Ottoman Empire attempts to conquer all Mediterranean trade routes, but the tiny island of Malta stands in its way. This island is also home to the fiercest knights, the Order of St. John, or Knights Hospitaller. 8,000 Knights and native Maltese fended off approx 48,000 Turkish warriors during the Siege of Malta. After the heroic stand, the capital of Malta is named after the commanding general, Jean de Valette.

The Siege of Malta (also known as the Great Siege of Malta) took place in 1565 when the Ottoman Empire invaded the island, then held by the Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta, Knights of Malta, Knights of Rhodes, and Chevaliers of Malta).

The Knights, together with between 400 Maltese men, women and children and approximately 2,000 footsoldiers won the siege, one of the bloodiest and most fiercely contested in history, and one which became one of the most celebrated events in sixteenth-century Europe. Voltaire said, "Nothing is better known than the siege of Malta," and it undoubtedly contributed to the eventual erosion of the European perception of Ottoman invincibility and marked a new phase in Spanish domination of the Mediterranean. The siege was the climax of an escalating contest between a Christian alliance and the Ottoman Empire for control of the Mediterranean, a contest that included Turkish admiral and privateer Dragut's attack on Malta in 1551, and the Ottoman utter destruction of an allied Christian fleet at the Battle of Djerba in 1560.

The number of casualties is in as much dispute as the number of invaders. Balbi gives 35,000 Ottoman deaths, which seems implausible, Bosio 30,000 casualties (including sailors). However modern estimations from military historians using Turkish archives have put the number of casualties at 10,000 from combat and disease, though it is generally agreed that there were likely far more losses amongst the various volunteers and pirates, which the Turkish sources would not have noted. The knights lost a third of their number, and Malta lost a third of its inhabitants. Birgu and Senglea were essentially leveled. Still, 9,000 Christians, most of them Maltese, had managed to withstand a siege of more than four months in the hot summer, despite enduring a bombardment of some 130,000 cannonballs.

Jean De Valette, Grand Master of the knights of Malta, had a key influence in the victory against Ottomans with his example and his ability to encourage and hold together people as one man. This example had a major impact, because the kings of Europe realized that the only way to win against the Ottomans was to stop wars between them and form alliances; the result was the vast union of forces against Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto few years later. Such was the gratitude of Europe for the knights' heroic defense that money soon began pouring into the island, allowing de Valette to construct a fortified city, Valletta, on Mt. Sciberras. His intent was to deny the position to any future enemies. La Valette himself died in 1568 after a hunting trip in Buskett.

The Ottomans never attempted to besiege Malta again. The failure of the siege did nothing to reverse the increasing dominance of Ottoman naval power in the Mediterranean, but in following a string of Christian naval defeats, such as at the Battle of Djerba, it did deny Ottoman forces the strategically vital island base in the centre of the sea which would have allowed them to launch ever deeper strikes into the belly of Europe.

dimanche, 18 décembre 2016

La Luz del Norte por Carlos X. Blanco

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La Luz del Norte por Carlos X. Blanco

17.50€

¿Quién fue realmente el Rey Pelayo?

¿Qué ocurrió en la batalla de Covadonga?

¿Qué acontecimientos vivía la península durante el siglo VIII?

http://editorialeas.com/shop/argos/la-luz-del-norte-por-c...

La historiografía tradicional da por establecido y concluido el relato sobre don Pelayo, noble astur que resistió a la conquista de la península Ibérica por los musulmanes, frenó la expansión del Islam en este territorio e inició la dinastía de los reyes asturianos. El asunto, sin embargo, no puede (ni debe) afrontarse desde una perspectiva única, la que sitúa a Pelayo como figura épica providencial que tras derrotar a los ejércitos africanos en Roncesvalles da inicio a la saga de nuestra Reconquista.

Carlos X. Blanco ha elegido la versión de don Pelayo, muy extendida y bastante plausible, de la Crónica Albeldense, conciliándola con la leyenda que lo traslada a Tierra Santa para huir de las intrigas de Witiza, sobre quien recaían sospechas de haber urdido la muerte de Favila, padre de nuestro protagonista. Adscrito a una sociedad iniciática fuertemente cohesionada por la fe cristiana y el convencimiento legitimista de la civilización hispano-romana, Pelayo vuelve a Hispania (el regresado del mar), e inicia su aventura, la diplomacia, la guerra y los dramáticos juegos del poder, hasta convertirse en adalid de la resistencia contra el Islam y primus inter pares entre la nobleza goda y astur.

José Vicente Pascual (escritor)

AUDIO: 

http://play.cadenaser.com/audio/1474022512_758888/

Carlos X. Blanco. Autor de La luz del norte. Pelayo, revisitado

   

Escrito por Lupercio González  

Ex: http://fuionasturias.com  

 
Es asturianista declarado, y va más allá: se considera covadonguista. 'Y no me avergüenzo. Cuando voy a Covadonga, reconozco mi identidad en aquella cascada y aquella gruta'. Como niño asturiano, se familiarizó con el mito de Pelayo y el inicio de la Reconquista. Como adulto, ha querido recrear aquellos escenarios y hechos históricos, rindiendo su particular homenaje al héroe astur.
Foto: Fusión Asturias
 

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-¿Por qué volver a contar la historia de don Pelayo?


-Me pareció justo, casi un deber, recrear esta figura que es muy desconocida entre los propios asturianos, y muchas veces no se toma ni en serio. Los historiadores han discutido mucho, que si era un noble godo, que si era astur... pero más allá de ese enigma, es fascinante lo que siempre se consideró su gesta: defender esta patria de un invasor extranjero. Así que la novela está enfocada como una especie de tributo a un héroe muy nuestro, asturiano y español, que fue un liberador al margen de cualquier ideología.


-¿Por qué La luz del norte?


-En los primeros capítulos se cuenta como esas fuerzas extranjeras dominaban, saqueaban, esclavizaban... Hispania entera estaba en una gran oscuridad, y en un país remoto, muy mal comunicado, se abre una luz de esperanza, un proyecto de futuro. Eso fue la batalla de Covadonga. En realidad no debió de ser más que una pequeña escaramuza, pero ahí el reino asturiano puso el freno a una pretensión de imperio mundial, algo que el islam tenía y tiene.

"Los que hemos estudiado la cultura y la lengua asturiana también somos culpables del mal momento actual. No hemos sabido transmitir un mensaje de autoestima y conocimiento"

-¿Cuánto de invención y cuánto de narración histórica hay en esta novela?


-Bueno, tenemos unas crónicas de la época muy parcas en información, así que yo parto de los datos históricos, pero también he incluido aventuras de mi propia cosecha: hay batallas, persecuciones, incluso algún elemento fantástico. En realidad tenemos muy pocos testimonios arqueológicos, e incluso hay quien desprecia la batalla de Covadonga como una leyenda. ¡Pero es que la leyenda es realidad para nosotros! A todo niño asturiano se le ha hablado de Covadonga, siempre se le ha hecho revivir lo que ahí pasó.


-No sólo con esta novela, usted siempre se ha movido en terrenos asturianistas, ¿Cómo percibe que se trata lo astur hoy en día?


-Pésimamente. Estamos en un momento crítico en el que o dejamos de tener conciencia colectiva como asturianos, o nos rearmamos para que permanezca al menos un rescoldo. Y, desde luego, los que hemos estudiado la cultura y la lengua asturiana también somos culpables. Lo hemos hecho fatal, no hemos sabido transmitir un mensaje de autoestima y conocimiento no de nuestros tópicos, sino de nuestra verdadera historia y nuestras raíces.
Esto no tiene que ver con ninguna ideología: ser asturianista no es ser de izquierdas ni de derechas, ser independentista o dejar de serlo. Es amar a tu patria, y eso implica investigar, conocer, transmitir ese amor a tus hijos.


-Sin embargo, se publica mucho sobre temas relacionados con lo asturiano. ¿Es un baremo fiable?


-No, porque en un mundo editorial muy falso, que depende de la subvención, se forman círculos cerrados de personas subvencionables. Hay un exceso de pedantería y una especie de cultismo de escribir sólo para unos críticos que te van a ser favorables ya a priori. El error es escribir para un grupo reducido, sin abrirse a ese pueblo asturiano que tiene pocos libros, revistas, documentales, actividades que le permitan reencontrarse con su identidad.


-¿Haría falta un nuevo Pelayo?


-Más que una figura individual, debería crearse un sujeto colectivo. Ni si quiera sería imprescindible que fuera político, pero sí que hubiera un grupo ilustrado, como en la época de Jovellanos, que supiera transmitir a sus hijos y a su entorno ese amor por lo propio, esa autoestima que estamos perdiendo.
En ese sentido, sería importante no dejarse llevar por un nacionalismo falso, porque a partir de la creación del estado de las autonomías en España se ha tendido a crear una especie de disfraz de identidad regional, que no es real. Es como cuando uno va disfrazado con el traje regional, que muchas veces no se corresponde con la verdadera indumentaria que habría que investigar y recuperar.

09:49 Publié dans Histoire, Livre, Livre | Lien permanent | Commentaires (0) | Tags : don pelayo, wisigoths, asturies, espagne, reconquista, histoire, livre | |  del.icio.us | | Digg! Digg |  Facebook

samedi, 10 décembre 2016

Why Did Japan Choose a Suicidal War in 1941?

 

Seven decades after Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor some truth is finally beginning to emerge from the miasma of propaganda that still clouds our vision of World War II.

It seems clear by now that President Franklin Roosevelt’s White House knew from deciphered  codes that Japan was planning an attack on America’s key naval base in Hawaii. Shamefully, the senior US Navy and Army commanders at Pearl Harbor were not informed of the impending attack. The US Navy’s three aircraft carriers were coincidentally moved far from harm’s way before the attack, leaving only obsolescent World War I battleships in port as sitting ducks.

Roosevelt was eager to get the United States into war against Germany at all costs. But Americans wanted no part of Europe’s war, recalling how British propaganda had deceived America into World War I. The single largest ethnic group in America was of German origin.  In the 1880’s, my native New York City was the third most populous German city on earth after Berlin and Hamburg.

Roosevelt, whose sympathies lay far to the left in spite of his patrician background, understood that only a surprise attack would provoke Americans into war.

At the time, the US supplied 80% of Japan’s oil, 100% of its aviation fuel, and much of its metal. Roosevelt demanded Japan vacate China that it had invaded, or face an embargo of these vital strategic materials on which Japan’s industry depended. Japan’s fascist military government refused, as Washington knew it would. A US embargo ensued.

jappilot.jpgJapan had a one-year strategic reserve of oil.  Its stark choice was either run out of oil, fuel, and scrap steel over 12 months or go to war while it still had these resources. The only other potential source of oil for Japan was the distant Dutch East Indies, today Indonesia.

In 1991, then US President George H.W. Bush claimed that the US had a right to go to war with Iraq to assure its supply of oil.

Japan’s leading naval strategist, Adm. Isoroku Yamamoto, gloomily predicted before Pearl Harbor that Japan was going to war for oil and would be defeated because of it. He was absolutely correct.  America was ten times more powerful than Japan and had a huge industrial capacity.

It was a suicidal war for Japan in all aspects.  Japan’s powerful army, deployed to occupy China and perhaps fight the Soviet Union,  cared nothing for the Pacific.  By contrast, the  Imperial Japanese Navy had no interest in China.  Its goal was the conquest of the oil-rich Dutch East Indies, British-ruled Malaya,  French-ruled Indo-China and the US-ruled Philippines and Pacific territories.  Making matters worse,  Japan’s navy and army ran separate wars, without any coordination, unified industrial policy or common strategy – in short, two different wars for a nation that was not even up to one conflict at a time.

Japan claimed it was waging a crusade to ‘liberate’ Asia from the Western imperial rule. But few Asians bought this argument due to the brutality and arrogance of their Japanese occupiers.

Looking back, it was indeed an old-fashioned imperial war: the Japanese Empire versus the American, British, French and Dutch empires.  The last empire, the Soviet Union, did not get involved until its smashing victory against Japan’s Kwantung Army in 1945, one of WWII’s greatest campaigns but now totally forgotten.

Why did the Japanese,  an intelligent, clever people, think they could defeat the US and its allies? My view after long studying this question is that Japan’s militarists, boxed into a corner by Roosevelt’s crushing embargo, had to choose between a humiliating surrender to the US and giving up China, or a suicidal war.

Japan’s samurai culture that infused its armed forces saw surrender as the ultimate shame. Death in battle was preferable to surrender and the only honorable course for warriors.

Japanese militarized society had a belief in the ‘nobility of failure’ that was unknown to other peoples.

For Japan’s warriors, the highest glory and honor lay in choosing to fight a battle against greatly superior forces in which defeat and death were clearly inevitable. This was the ultimate expression of the knightly code of ‘bushido’ that guided Japan’s warrior caste.

By June 1944, Japan’s imports of strategic material and food were cut off by US submarines. Half its cities were burning. The population was starving.  Meanwhile, the US was assembling its atomic bombs.

In a final act of folly, right after Pearl Harbor Adolf Hitler declared war on the United States, presenting Roosevelt, whose government had numerous high-ranking Soviet agents, the war he had so long wanted.

jeudi, 08 décembre 2016

Géopolitique du Salafisme: L’épée et l’idée en fusion

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Géopolitique du Salafisme: L’épée et l’idée en fusion

Ex: http://www.perspectivesmed.ma 
Une littérature foisonnante fait grand cas du salafisme pour expliquer les dérives djihadistes qui marquent de leur sceau l’actualité internationale. Mais quid de cette mouvance rigoriste maternée par le wahhabisme né dans les terres arides du Hedjaz ? C’est en remontant les aiguilles de l’Histoire que le phénomène salafiste pourrait être finement appréhendé. Histoire d’apporter l’éclairage nécessaire sur les ressorts géopolitiques sur lesquels s’articule une pensée guerrière. 
Le salafisme est apparu dans la moitié du 18ème siècle dans l’oasis d’Al-Dariya, situé à 60 kilomètres de Riyad, capitale du Royaume d’Arabie Saoudite. Il est né du pacte conclu entre Mohammed Ben Ibn Abdel Wahhab, théologien, disciple d’Ibn Taymiyya, homme religieux kurde du 13ème siècle, prônant la diffusion de la pensée Hanbalite, qui interdit toute forme d’innovation, et toute interprétation rationnelle (Al-Ijtihad) des textes sacrés et Mohamed Ibn Saoud Al-Mouqrin, émir de la tribu des Banous Hanifa en 1744. Cette fusion entre le sabre et la doctrine va trouver des soutiens extérieurs, notamment celui des Anglais et plus tard des Français. Les intérêts des deux puissances européennes dans la pénétration de la Région sont multiples : le déclin de l’Empire Ottaman, baptisé  » l’homme malade », l’amélioration de leurs réseau commercial et l’endiguement des Russes qui visaient l’accès aux Mers chaudes.
Pendant ce temps, les Al–Saoud avaient commencé la conquête de la totalité du Nedjd, partie Nord Est de la péninsule Arabique. Leur l’offensive militaire était rapide mais à cause de leurs querelles intestines, ils furent défaits à deux reprises par le gouverneur Ottoman Mohamed Ali Pacha (gouverneur de l’Egypte sous l’Empire Ottoman). Les Turcs et leurs Alliés locaux ne parvenaient ni à éradiquer les racines de ce renouveau Salafisme rigoriste et violent ni ce nationalisme fédératif des tribus arabes (voir les mécanismes de la Assabiya chez Ibn Khaldoun). Dans cet environnement instable et complexe, le général Napoléon Bonaparte profita de sa courte expédition en Egypte (1789/1802) et tissa des contacts précieux avec les Saoudiens pendant leur guerre tribale avec les autres tribus. L’objectif de l’initiative française dans le contexte de l’époque était d’établir une alliance militaire avec la tribu bédouine des Al-Saoud anti-Ottomane et aussi les gouverneurs des Al-Rachid à Nadjd et Haïl et Les Hachémites du Hedjaz (région de l’Ouest de l’Arabie), qui abrite les lieux sacrés de l’islam (la Mecque et Médine).

Cette convoitise régionale a donné naissance à la fameuse théorie militaire ottomane dite de la « pomme « , contre la théorie française dite de « la tenaille » inventée par Bonaparte. De l’autre côte, les Anglais qui avaient installé des comptoirs dans les pays du Golfe, soutenaient les Al-Saoud chassés à deux reprises de leur fiefs par les Ottomans. Après leur défaite, les Saoudiens vont trouver refuge au Koweït d’où ils menèrent leurs raids éclairs contre les Turcs et leurs alliés. L’émir Abdelaziz ben Abderrahmane Al-Saoud, héritier du trône de la dynastie, décida en 1906, grâce à l’appui des Anglais de reconstruire la royauté de ses ancêtres, en chassant ses ennemis historiques, les tribus des Al-Rachid et les Chérifs Hachémites de la Mecque et de Médine, au moment ou toutes les puissances Occidentales étaient occupées par la Première guerre mondiale. Ce relâchement international concernant le Moyen Orient, a permis la fondation du Royaume des Al-Saoud de l’entre deux guerres, avec comme constitution le Coran et la Sunna. Projet conçu par le théologien Mohammed Ibn Abdel Wahhab (le Wahhabisme est un terme inadéquat). Le lien scellé en 1744 entre les deux familles va prendre la forme d’un État organisé et structuré, grâce à l’appui des occidentaux présents dans la Région. En effet, en 1912, le Roi Abdelaziz organisa les bédouins en Ikhwans (fratries ou frères), le pouvoir politique et religieux est ainsi partagé entre les Al-Saoud et les Al- Sheikh descendants du prêcheur Ibn Abdelwahab selon un équilibre particulier : les premiers accaparent le pouvoir politique, militaire et économique, alors que les seconds sont devenus responsables du pourvoir cultuel, social et judicaire.

Le Salafisme est réapparu sous une forme nouvelle (islam politique) au début du 20ème siècle. Cependant, cet État n’avait aucune stratégie de conquête globale, ni d’un prosélytisme au delà de son environnement immédiat. Le roi Abdelaziz Al Saoud rêvait toujours de l’eau comme le souligne un Hadith cité dans le Sahih Al Boukhari rapportant que le Prophète Mohammed disait « Oh peuple de Nedjd, vous dormez sur l’or », terme signifiant « or noir », en référence au pétrole!La rencontre du fondateur de l’Arabie Saoudite moderne avec les Occidentaux, particulièrement les Américains, a transformé cette entité en puissance régionale, couronnée par la signature d’un traité de solidarité et de défense avec le président Américain Roosevelt en 1944, (traité Quincy). Cette entente va renverser la donne géopolitique du Moyen Orient, accentuant le retrait progressif des Anglais et des Français de la région.

À cet égard, les Etats-Unis se sont engagés à protéger la Monarchie des Al-Saoud, la contre partie étant la préservation des intérêts géostratégiques et surtout énergétiques de cette grande puissance pendant soixante ans. Cette nouvelle alliance a conforté les croyances de l’homme fort de l’Arabie, en déclarant à ses sympathisants: « Allah est là Haut et les Américains sont en bas » pour contourner la gêne occasionnée par ce traité signé avec les mécréants. C’est grâce à deux ingénieurs américains que le pétrole va être découvert en 1932, ce qui a profondément attristé le Roi Saoudien qui s’attendait à la découverte de l’eau! En effet, la découverte des plus grandes réserves d’énergies fossiles mondiales dans la Péninsule Arabique bouleversa la configuration géopolitique du Moyen-Orient. La dynastie saoudienne et ce depuis sa création, était toujours impliquée dans tous les conflits du Moyen-Orient ; accords franco -britanniques de Sykes-Picot en 1916, création de l’Etat d’Israël en 1948, naissance de la Ligue Arabe en 1945, la guerre du Yémen en 1962, la guerre d’Afghanistan en 1979, le conflit Irako-Iranien, l’occupation du Koweït en 1993 et, enfin, l’invasion Américaine de l’Irak en 2003, et dont les conséquences sont toujours d’actualité.

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A partir de 1979, les Saoudiens se sont retrouvés en face d’un autre ennemi régional, l’Iran Shiite qui menaçait les fondements idéologiques du wahhabisme. Paradoxalement, le pétrole ne va pas servir cette monarchie naissante pendant les premières décennies, elle va plutôt s’appuyer sur les recettes du pèlerinage et du commerce Inter-régional, à tel point que le roi Abdelaziz a voulu créer une sorte de Vatican pour les lieux Saints musulmans, mais personne n’avait accepté son offre qui à mon sens était visionnaire, courageuse et révolutionnaire.

En 1952, le régime de Nasser avait déclaré la guerre à l’association des Frères Musulmans créée en 1928. De ce fait, les militaires égyptiens étaient considérés à Riyad comme un danger potentiel pour la survie et la stabilité de l’État Saoudien. De son coté, le colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser ne cachait pas son alliance avec l’URSS et sa haine contre ce qu’il appelait « les valets de l’impérialisme dans le monde arabe ».
Cette situation de rivalité interarabe, poussera les salafistes saoudiens à former une alliance stratégique avec la confrérie des Frères musulmans. Ces derniers vont fournir aux Saoudiens des élites et des bras nécessaires pour contrecarrer la menace nassérienne. Dans ce cadre là, les wahhabites créèrent un axe islamique puissant et international appelé Ligue du Monde islamique. Cette opposition des deux alliés salafistes contre le panarabisme a abouti à la division du Monde arabe entre deux camps rivaux : les progressistes et les modérés.

Dans le même sillage, l’utilisation de l’arme du pétrole dans cette bataille, va nourrir la doctrine extrémiste des salafistes toutes tendances confondues, qui débouchera par la suite sur un projet d’islam politique à travers le Monde. Cette idéologie politique s’est appuyée sur trois piliers stratégiques : La Ligue du Monde Islamique (construction de mosquées et de centres culturels dans les cinq continents), l’Organisation de la Conférence Islamique OACI et l’OPAEP. Pendant cet épisode crucial dans l’histoire arabe, on remarque que les Frères musulmans avaient joué un rôle déterminant dans le recrutement, la formation, la conversion et l’embrigadement de milliers de jeunes dans le monde. Plusieurs d’entre eux étaient envoyés dans différents théâtres de crise. Cette évolution historique souligne que le mouvement Salafiste n’était pas actif uniquement dans le Moyen-Orient. D’autres mouvements de même nature apparaissent au Maghreb et au Sahel. Tous se sont inspirés de la pensée du théologien kurde Ibn
Taimiyya.
L’association des Oulémas en Algérie en 1924, la révolution du Rif en 1915, le mouvement Salafiste des oulémas de l’université de Fès 1944. En Libye et au Sahel, la Zaouiya Sennoussiya fut le fer de lance de la résistance anticoloniale. La séparation entre les Frères musulmans et les Wahhabites, va s’officialiser en 2011. Les Wahabbites avaient accusé la Confrérie Frèriste d’ avoir élaboré un projet secret visant à déstabiliser les monarchies du Golfe avec la complicité des Américains.Cet événement coïncida avec le Printemps arabe qui a consolidé les groupes Takfiristes et Djihadistes les plus radicaux dont la doctrine jette l’anathème sur les deux frères ennemis salafistes et sur toute la planète .À ce sujet, les Wahhabites ont soupçonné l’Occident de miser sur les fréristes. Selon eux, ils sont les seuls dont les membres sont éduqués et partiellement occidentalisés pouvant créer une hiérarchie forte au sein du monde Sunnite.
À cet égard, les Frères musulmans disposent d’une véritable structure riche et secrète, capable d’accepter une normalisation avec l’État Hébreu au Moyen-Orient. Ils pourraient aussi installer une forme de démocratie à l’occidentale dans les pays arabes (Tunisie).En conclusion et dans une vision prospective, on pense que le duel actuel entre les deux protagonistes renforce Daech et ses semblables. Les ultras -radicaux ont situé leur combat contre tous au niveau du verbe et de l’image, plus haut que la stratégie habituelle conçue par les salafistes eux-mêmes. Dans ce même ordre d’idée, on remarque que tous les acteurs de l’islam politique privilégient la négation réciproque plutôt que le compromis. Les Frères musulmans marquent beaucoup de points en leur faveur car leur discours pénètre facilement les esprits des jeunes scolarisés et disposent d’une capacité d’adaptation considérable d’un réseau large et d’une communication très dynamique.

mercredi, 30 novembre 2016

Peter Kropotkin: Der Seismograph der Revolution

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Peter Kropotkin: Der Seismograph der Revolution

mardi, 29 novembre 2016

América y Siberia, conexión geopolítica

Ex: http://www.elespiadigital.com

Enrique J. Refoyo 

¿Quién puede pensar que hay alguna conexión entre el continente americano y el enorme espacio de la inmensa Siberia rusa? Hay conexión, conexión geopolítica, y de hecho está en la historia. Hagamos un repaso histórico rápido.

América en las guerras napoleónicas (1799-1815)

A principios del siglo XIX, en el contexto de las guerras napoleónicas, el territorio europeo de España se vio ocupado por el ejército francés de Napoleón. Durante los 6 años de la guerra en España contra las fuerzas napoleónicas (1808 – 1814), no hubo una guerra simplemente en el ámbito europeo, también hubo choques por todo el mundo. El imperio británico aprovechó esa oportunidad para su máximo beneficio, pues en vistas de que había caído la monarquía española lanzaron otro ataque en el continente americano contra el imperio español. Además el imperio británico había lanzado constantes ataques con piratería e invasiones frustradas contra la América española en los siglos XVII y XVIII. Así que desde el liderazgo británico, siendo bien conscientes de su posición geopolítica como potencia naval, sabían que para construir su poder, siempre lo han de levantar sobre la división de las potencias rivales, tanto terrestres como navales.

En este contexto, el imperio británico, en vistas de su incapacidad para invadir militarmente la España americana, pasaron a una guerra indirecta, cuya oportunidad vieron y aprovecharon durante la guerra en España anteriormente mencionada. Hay que recordar que los imperios español y francés, también se unieron a los revoltosos de las 13 colonias para debilitar la influencia británica en América, y desde luego, la eficacia de la acción quedó probada en las victorias militares y subsiguiente expulsión del imperio británico de las mismas 13 colonias fundadas por colonos ingleses. Si bien es cierto que también hubo precondiciones basadas en desigualdades legales y económicas de la metrópoli inglesa respecto a sus 13 colonias.

Los dirigentes británicos aprendieron bien de la lección que recibieron en su pérdida territorial a finales del siglo XVIII. De modo que, aprovechar oportunidades geopolíticas y hacer la guerra indirecta les parecieron buenos elementos a tener en cuenta, y así los usaron en su particular guerra geopolítica contra el imperio español. Por un lado, desde el imperio británico se aprovecharon de cualquier tipo de desigualdad o directamente aprovecharon la avaricia de las élites hispanas en América para crear división y motivos por los que rebelarse y declarar la independencia, todo ello en un momento histórico en que España carecía de gobierno ya que el rey Carlos IV y el príncipe heredero Fernando VII habían sido depuestos y llevados por la fuerza a Francia con la invasión napoleónica.

Así mismo, en el contexto de dicha guerra en España (1808 – 1814), el paso del ejército británico por España fue del todo devastador. Allá donde pasaban, no sólo procuraban expulsar a las tropas francesas, sino que también arrasaban toda la incipiente industria española, así como infraestructura civil y militar, e incluso incendiando deliberadamente ciudades y pueblos. Aquella guerra dejó tres lecciones en España:

  1. Carecer de buenos líderes propios siempre trae desgracias. Lo que Maquiavelo ya mencionaba en su dicotomía de Virtud y Fortuna: La virtud propia del príncipe en sus labores de gobierno y la fortuna de encontrarse con situaciones ventajosas. Un gobernante no-virtuoso arrastra inevitablemente el infortunio.
  2. Al hacer caso al liderazgo francés, España se vio invadida y sus líderes depuestos y secuestrados. Ergo, es muy importante tener una perspectiva geopolítica propia y activa, en vez de actuar de forma reactiva o pasiva, sumándose a las acciones de otros.
  3. La invasión inglesa del territorio español en la península ibérica supuso una manera encubierta de acabar con las capacidades económicas de la España europea, para que tras la derrota napoleónica, el siguiente dirigente de la monarquía española se encontrase con un país arrasado y por tanto debilitado, e incapaz -al máximo- para afrontar las situaciones militares en todo su imperio, que los mismos líderes británicos habían estado promoviendo durante las guerras napoleónicas.

¿A quién benefició la independencia de la América española?

Antes de continuar, es necesario echar un vistazo lejano en tiempo pero cercano en contenido ¿Conocen la historia de Viriato? Fue antiguo caudillo de diferentes tribus ibéricas a mediados del siglo II a.C, que tras vencer a los invasores romanos en todas las batallas, se cuenta que fue asesinado por 3 miembros de una tribu aliada de Viriato, los cuales habían recibido la promesa romana de recibir grandes riquezas, con tierras y otros privilegios a cambio de que asesinaran a Viriato. Cuando los 3 traidores asesinaron a Viriato y fueron ante los romanos para pedir la recompensa, lo que recibieron de los romanos fue: “Roma traditoribus non praemiat”, Roma no paga a traidores.

Regresando a la pregunta de este epígrafe, parece que tal pregunta se responde de manera sencilla, la independencia benefició a los americanos. Pero eso no es cierto. De un territorio unido, de repente apareció una decena de países, que a su vez nacieron entre inestabilidad interna y deudas con el banco de Inglaterra, ese banco propiedad de los Rothschild, que financió a los insurrectos americanos para que ‘supuestamente’ se liberasen del yugo español, pero en realidad, el siglo XIX se vio sembrado de numerosas y sangrientas guerras en esos nuevos países o entre ellos. Unas guerras que siempre iban unidas al sello -principalmente- del imperio británico, que a su vez, no deseaba que ningún nuevo Estado en América pudiera conseguir un poder geopolítico importante y rivalizador.

Como ejemplos, los tenemos por todo el continente americano: La disolución de la república centroamericana, la reducción al máximo de Méjico (pérdidas del norte entre 1836 y 1848), la división de la gran Colombia en tres países, el enfrentamiento entre Chile contra Perú y Bolivia, la división de Argentina mediante la creación de Uruguay, la invasión de la tripe alianza contra Paraguay, etc. Esos son ejemplos del significado geopolítico real que tenía la promoción de la independencia de los territorios imperiales españoles en América para los dirigentes del imperio británico, un simple y efectivo ‘Divide et impera’ (Divide y vencerás).

Russian_claims_in_the_americas_19th_century.png“El gran juego” del siglo XIX

La lucha geopolítica entre el imperio ruso y el imperio británico durante el siglo XIX en Asia es conocida como “el gran juego”. Los líderes británicos, no sólo buscaron la contención, división, y supresión del poder español en América, también lo buscaron frente al imperio ruso, con el que incluso hacían frontera en el noroeste del continente americano (actual Alaska). De nuevo, los líderes británicos buscaron -en primer lugar- la contención del imperio ruso mediante la conquista o influencia territorial desde la que pudieran frenar el avance ruso desde los enormes territorios entre Europa y Asia. Y en segundo lugar, buscaron la hostilidad hacia Rusia, para poner a otras potencias regionales o mundiales contra el imperio ruso, y así presionarlo o incluso atacarlo, como sucedió en la guerra de Crimea (1853 – 1856), en que los imperios británico y francés se unieron al otomano para frenar el avance ruso por las costas orientales y occidentales del mar negro.

Algo que parecía imposible en el siglo XIX, una alianza entre los británicos y los rusos (y los franceses), se vio en la primera guerra mundial (1914 – 1918). Pero aquello sólo fue una alianza temporal ya que ambos imperios tenían un mismo enemigo en el pujante e industrial imperio alemán en Centroeuropa que además en aquella época contaba con colonias en África y Asia, las cuales proporcionaban grandes recursos a la industria alemana. Con la derrota del imperio ruso en la guerra (1917), y la posterior guerra civil (1918-1923) entre las facciones normalmente resumidas en rojos y blancos, se vio la naturaleza imperecedera de los dirigentes del imperio británico: No tienen aliados, sólo tienen intereses en función de la situación geopolítica.

Y así, de la mano de geógrafos políticos ingleses como Halford Mackinder, aparecieron los planes con las verdaderas intenciones hacia Rusia: Contener, dividir, y vencer. Mackinder propuso que en el marco de la debilidad rusa tras su derrota y guerra civil, se tenían que crear al menos 3 países para hacer un tapón entre Rusia y Europa: Bielorrusia, Ucrania y Transcaucasia. Así mismo, también proyectaron la creación de otro país más “Lenaland”, en la zona oriental de Siberia, entre la cuenca del río Lena y la costa del pacífico, para así aislar a Rusia de todos los mares importantes, dejándola reducida a unos pequeños enclaves marítimos siempre limitados por el paso a través del espacio marítimo de otros países, como en los mares báltico y negro que deben pasar entre territorio de Dinamarca-Suecia, y de Turquía respectivamente, quedándole a Rusia el acceso libre a mares árticos de escasa o nula utilidad. En este sentido, los enormes territorios rusos, principalmente la inmensa Siberia, son equiparables a la América hispánica, es decir, un inmenso territorio que le otorga una ventaja geopolítica inigualable al poder que lo mantenga. Dicha ventaja para rusos y españoles respectivamente, resultaba algo intolerable para el poder marítimo británico que nunca podría mantener una dominación global mientras que hubiera grandes potencias terrestres manteniendo extensos territorios.

“Divide et impera”, el axioma eterno

En este sentido, para los dirigentes británicos y posteriormente hasta la actualidad, para los dirigentes estadounidenses, Siberia en particular y Rusia en general, les parece ese territorio demasiado extenso como para que sólo lo tuviera un país, y por eso, siempre han actuado para contener, dividir y someter a cualquiera que gobierne en Rusia. La geopolítica no se trata de ideologías, se trata de conseguir y retener poder a nivel geográfico, por ello, tanto al imperio ruso, la unión soviética o la actual federación de Rusia, mantuvieron las mismas líneas geopolíticas. Y el imperio británico, posteriormente sustituido en importancia internacional por Estados Unidos en el siglo XX, también mantiene las mismas directrices en pos de contener, dividir y someter a cualquier potencia que pueda hacerles frente.

Es más, cuanto mayor sea la división que provoquen, mayor será su poder. Así se vio en América, que no fue una liberación frente a España, sino que era la pugna por conseguir la máxima división y enfrentamiento interno, para obtener un control más sencillo por parte del poder imperial británico. Los dirigentes de Estados Unidos han seguido la misma fórmula. Basta con ver lo sucedido en Yugoslavia desde 1990, con la serie de guerras que desembocaron en la máxima división y enfrentamiento de esos territorios para su uso geopolítico por Estados Unidos. La entonces Federación Socialista de Yugoslavia pretendió mantener una posición equidistante entre Este y Oeste, pero tal cosa fue imposible. Cuando cayó el lado soviético, y los líderes yugoslavos no quisieron seguir la vía de la ‘americanización’ que otros países del antiguo bloque soviético estaban realizando, entonces, Yugoslavia se vio asolada por la peor guerra europea desde 1945. De nuevo, cualquier división fue explotada externamente para crear una guerra brutal que acabase con un país que se creía geopolíticamente independiente, y ahora está convertido en 7 Estados, algunos más y otros menos dependientes de Estados Unidos o su sucursal de la Unión Europea.

Indigenismo “made in USA”

Actualmente, en diversos países iberoamericanos hay una nueva ideología conocida como “indigenismo”, con la que algunos dirigentes políticos pretenden reivindicar el pasado pre-hispánico a la par de una especie de unidad panamericana. Eso tiene tanto sentido como una ideología que pretendiese unir a todos los países mediterráneos con un idioma de origen romano mientras que odian a los romanos y reivindican un pasado pre-romano a la carta (quedándose con la tecnología moderna europea pero llenándolo todo de historias sobre los “buenos y pacíficos indígenas” frente a los “malvados invasores españoles”), ya que fueron los romanos precisamente quienes unificaron el área del mar mediterráneo, y en consecuencia, el elemento romano es la única línea continua entre los diferentes pueblos que conquistaron, al igual que el elemento hispánico es ese elemento común por encima de todas las diferencias. Además, los mismos creadores del indigenismo desde EEUU, defienden el mantenimiento de los supuestos “pueblos originarios” en América como un elemento de justicia, pero si son los Europeos quienes se defienden a sí mismos como pueblos originarios de Europa, tal cosa es racismo. Ahí se puede ver la mano del capitalismo globalizador, siempre creando desigualdades a favor de sus intereses.

Desde luego que los romanos hicieron su dominio por las armas, y desde luego que las tribus e imperios que conquistaron, también eran belicosos, y también se enfrentaban unos a otros, esta es la historia de absolutamente todo el mundo. Pero en Europa, no se duda de que el pasado romano, o en extensión, de que pasado greco-romano, es la base histórica de todos los países europeos. Pero en América, la base de esos países, que es el pasado hispánico, recibe todos los ataques posibles desde los creadores de ideologías de EEUU. Para los dirigentes de EEUU, como lo era para los dirigentes británicos, la división del continente americano entre muchos países enfrentados es una prioridad geopolítica. No pueden tolerar el surgimiento de ninguna potencia fuerte y con independencia en su “patio geopolítico”.

Y el indigenismo, fuera de todos los lemas y pancartas, representa ese elemento de continuación en la división y enfrentamiento interno más que de unidad, ya que ¿si no fuera en español y por la demás herencia hispánica, en qué idioma se comunicarían, y la unidad de qué cosa reclamarían los líderes supuestamente indigenistas americanos? Así mismo, ¿qué ocurriría en Washington DC, si de repente en Iberoamérica se reclamase la creación de un polo geopolítico propio y americano, sobre los fundamentos hispánicos comunes? De repente, se podría formar una enorme potencia de unos 600 millones de habitantes (el doble de EEUU), con inmensos recursos naturales con que sostenerse por sí misma de la guerra económica que les sobreviniera.

Conclusión

El pasado romano es a Europa lo mismo que el pasado hispánico es a América, su pasado que no volverá, porque sucedió en un momento histórico por una serie de circunstancias concretas e irrepetibles, pero siempre será la base fundamental que marque el devenir continental en el pasar de los siglos. Y como bien saben las élites dirigentes en el actual Estados Unidos, atacar el pasado de los pueblos mientras que se les inunda con una ‘cultura’ del materialismo, es la mejor forma que conocen los dirigentes estadounidenses para dominar países enteros.

Cualquier ínfima división o desigualdad será aprovechada por estas élites para crear una cuña desde la que introducirse allá donde marquen sus intereses. Y del mismo modo pueden recibir en el mismo Estados Unidos. Toda división o desigualdad, si es enorme o si se la exagera lo suficiente, puede ser un motivo de conflicto. La falta de liderazgo capacitado para entender las necesidades de su pueblo y las necesidades geopolíticas, estará más próximo al desastre.

Por otro lado, Siberia fue y sigue siendo esa gran región rusa, que existe precisamente por la mano de miles de rusos siglos atrás. Dicha área es una prioridad geopolítica de influencia y división para la potencia marítima estadounidense: Sin Siberia, Rusia perdería la salida directa al océano pacífico así como enormes y variadas cantidades de recursos naturales. Por eso desde EEUU están interesados en que haya fuerte emigración de población china a Siberia, para crear tensiones entre rusos, y chinos y mientras tanto, que el poder estadounidense vaya copando los medios de comunicación y también tal poder vaya cooptando a una élite siberiana fiel a los postulados estadounidenses. Con todo ello dispuesto para que, algún día concreto, los puedan activar y disparar en una revolución de color o guerra no-convencional contra el gobierno ruso.

Fuente: Katehon

vendredi, 25 novembre 2016

Quel avenir pour le sionisme sous Donald Trump?

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Quel avenir pour le sionisme sous Donald Trump?

Christian Brosio interroge Youssef Hindi

Christian Brosio interroge Youssef Hindi au sujet de ses deux ouvrages sur l'histoire du sionisme et le choc des civilisations publiés chez SIGEST. La fin de l'entretien porte sur Donald Trump, et ce que l'on peut en attendre. L'histoire des Etats-Unis est hélas peu encourageante, les présidents isolationnistes ont souvent été entraînés à la guerre à la suite de coups montés...

mardi, 22 novembre 2016

The Willful State: Frederick the Great’s Report on the Prussian Government

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The Willful State:
Frederick the Great’s Report on the Prussian Government

Frederick the Great
Exposé du gouvernement prussien, des principes sur lesquels il roule, avec quelques réflexions politiques
Berlin, 1775-1776[1]

One often encounters people who have no faith in the ability of a small nation to achieve anything worthwhile.[2] Yet one typically does not have the luxury of choice. One may prefer to live in a large and populous country, but in any event one must work with what one has. Furthermore, the fact is that small states can and do on occasion “punch above their weight” and influence the course of history. In support of the proposition that even the smallest of nations may dare to be ambitious, I give a most powerful example: the Kingdom of Prussia.

When Frederick the Great became King of Prussia in 1740, the population of his little north German realm numbered just over 2 million. This was only a third of the population of England, itself a rather small European power, and Frederick’s kingdom did not enjoy the protection of the English Channel. Instead, Prussia, also a land poor in natural resources, was protected solely by the sheer will to organize all of the little state’s means into the mightiest army possible. The gambles were huge, the threats of annihilation repeated, and yet through it all it was little Prussia which emerged victorious. The machine set in march by Frederick would double in population by the conquest of Silesia and, a century later, give Bismarck the means to unite Germany. Thus Prussia shows how a small principality may become the greatest of European powers.

The lessons of Prussian statecraft are then of interest to all those, be they leaders or citizens of nations great or small, who wish to maximize their potential and fulfill a great project. How did Frederick go about building his machine of state? For this, we may turn to the Great King himself, for he was a prolific writer. In the mid-1770s, he wrote a private[3] Report on the Prussian Government, on the Principles on Which It Operates, with some Political Reflections. The work, as so often with Frederick, is of an admirable lucidity and clarity. I will provide an overview of the Report, which apparently has never been published in English, with translations of substantial passages.

Frederick argues for a unitary state in which all the branches of government — military, budgetary, and political (under which he refers exclusively to foreign policy) — are continuously and harmoniously united towards a single goal. For the insecure Prussia of Frederick’s day, that goal was above all maintaining military preparedness and a “rainy day” war-chest, to both guarantee the state’s security and seize any opportunities which, by the vagaries of international politics, should present themselves. Frederick asserts that the prince must himself give the example, carefully monitoring all aspects of his state’s operation and personally ensuring that military merit is honored above money. Good manners must be promoted among the citizens and fertility encouraged. Above all else, one must concentrate one’s efforts on the decisive, always being thrifty, and not wasting resources on side-projects. The bolder one’s enterprises, the greater the gains.

In short, Frederick’s politics are the antithesis to the bourgeois democratic politics we have grown used to in the postwar era. We may say that Western politics have tended to be ever-more obsessed with materialist consumerism (welfare, purchasing power, GDP; and our politicians even fail to deliver these) and egalitarian “victimocracy” (symbolic and real spoils for various aggrieved groups, namely ethnic minorities, sexual minorities, and women). In both cases, individual and sectional interests are taken as the frame reference, rather than the interests of the community as a whole.

Finances: Frugality Above All

Frederick begins: “To have a general idea of this government, one must examine in detail all the government’s branches, and then combine them together.” These branches are finances, the military, and international politics/foreign policy (la politique). Frederick emphasizes the importance of the budget, which he often compares to an organism’s nervous system: “I begin by finances, which are like the sinews of the human body, which move all its members.”[4] Public finances should be as frugal as possible — notwithstanding spending on fortifications, infrastructure, and foreign allies — so as to amass a healthy war chest that can last until peace is signed:

But one must remark that if we draw all extraordinary war funds from the treasury, we will last only four campaigns, which means that by necessity we must take hold of Saxony, husband as best we can the treasury, which must specifically only serve to fill the emptiness of a few provinces invaded by the enemy. Here is the bottom of things, which shows that one must practice the greatest economy to have the last écu[5] in one’s pocket when one negotiates the peace.

Frederick argues that a substantial budget surplus is justified economically because Prussia had a trade surplus twice as big, thus money was still entering circulation. This surplus, which the Germans do seem to have a knack for, was achieved thanks to “establishing many manufactures, and especially with the help of Silesia.” Frederick emphasizes the need for the most careful monitoring of public spending:

This is why one must not lose sight of manufactures: though them, this [trade] balance can still be increased in our current possession by some hundred thousand écus. But what is important above all is to conserve the good order now established in  the management of public monies and the supervision of all funds; without which the people pays very much, and the sovereign is robbed.

Thanks to this thriftiness, Prussia then had enough money for four military campaigns and enough grain for three, including purchases from Poland.

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Military Affairs: Preparedness & Honor

Frederick’s description of the Prussian army is worth quoting at length. He argues that Prussia’s militarization is warranted given her insecure geographical position and the size of her neighbors. The Prussian army, based (after the conquest of Silesia) on a country of 5.2 million, was by no means large compared to its neighbors’. Frederick argues then that Prussia can only distinguish itself militarily by the quality and discipline of its armed forces. The commander-in-chief himself must personally give the example “or all is lost” for the little country. Frederick strikes a decidedly conservative note, arguing that if aristocratic officers should prove inadequate, “the recourse to commoners, would be the first step towards the decline and fall of the army.”

ON THE ARMY.

The situation of this State forces us to maintain many troops, because our neighbors are Austria, Russia, France, and Sweden. The war-footing numbers 220,000 men, including the freelance battalions and the increase in cavalry. From this number we will be able to campaign with 180,000 men; but as soon as we need to form three armies, it becomes quite apparent that we do not have many compared to our neighbors. I believe that discipline must remain on the current footing, as must the introduced reforms, unless war should change, because then one may only side with adapting to circumstances and to change with them; but to equal our enemies or surpass them, one needs to do so through order and discipline, to encourage the officers to distinguish themselves, so that a noble emulation encourages them to surpass the enemies they must fight. If the sovereign does not himself get involved in military affairs, if he does not give the example, all is lost.  If one prefers courtly layabouts [fainéants de cour] to military affairs, one will see that the entire world will prefer this laziness to the strenuous military profession, and then, instead of our officers being nobles, we will have to have recourse to the commoners, which would be the first step towards the decline [décadence] and fall of the army. We have at present only 70 citizens[6] per company; one must not stray from this principle, to husband the country, which, by the increase in population, will be able to furnish resources or recruits, if war makes it necessary. [. . .] Our population counts 5.2 million souls, of which about 90,000 are soldiers. This proportion may suffice; but one must not take from the cantons more than 840 for each infantry regime and 400 for each cavalry regiment.

Foreign Policy: The Art of Opportunity

Frederick then writes very cogently on foreign policy under the heading “la politique.” This puts the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz’s later famous definition of war as “politics by other means” in an interesting light. In his great work On War, Clausewitz rarely discusses politics as such but it seems he too supported the primacy of foreign policy, which is to say the overriding interest of the state in maintaining its own existence and security, over liberal and constitutional niceties.[7]

Frederick clearly takes an unsentimental view of international relations as Realpolitik. The goal is to ensure the security of the state, this means: maintaining good relations and an alliance with the state which can most harm us (in this case Russia), acquiring more secure borders (by annexing Saxony as buffer territory), and being ever-prepared so as to be able to seize any unforeseeable opportunities to reach this goal. Frederick emphasizes caution however: given the country’s limited resources, war should only be pursued if there really is something to be gained, one must not overextend one’s territory to indefensible borders, and one must use both modesty and secrecy so as to not disturb the European balance of power and stoke general hostility against us.

ON POLITICS.

One of the first principles of politics is to work to ally oneself with whoever among our neighbors can inflict the most dangerous blows against the State. It is for this reason that we are allied with Russia, because it frees up our back concerning Prussia,[8] and that, as long as this relationship lasts, we have need not fear that Sweden will dare to attack in Pomerania. The times may change, the strangeness of circumstances can force us to take other commitments; but never will we find with the other powers the equivalent of the advantages that we find with Russia. The French troops are worth nothing, and the French are used to only feebly assisting their allies; and the English, made for paying subsidies, sacrifice their allies, to the peace, to favor their own interests. I do not speak of the house of Austria, with which it seems almost impossible to form solid bonds. Concerning the political prospects for acquisitions appropriate for this monarchy, the States of Saxony are indisputably those which would be the most appropriate, by rounding it off and forming a barrier by the mountains which separate Saxony from Bohemia, and which would need to be fortified. It is difficult to foresee how this acquisition could be made. The surest way would be to conquer Bohemia and Moravia, and to trade them for Saxony; or finally that this could be done by other trades either of the Rhenish possessions, adding Juliers or Berg, or by any other way that it could be done. This acquisition is an indispensable necessity to give this State the consistency which it lacks. For, as soon as we are at war, the enemy can march directly to Berlin without finding the slightest opposition on his path. I do not speak of the rights of succession in the countries of Ansbach, Juliers and Berg, and Mecklenburg, because these claims are known, and one must wait for their occurrence. As the State is not rich, we must take care above all else to not get involved in wars where there is nothing to be gained, because one exhausts oneself at a pure loss, and when a good opportunity follows, one cannot take advantage of it. All distant acquisitions are a burden to a State. A village on the border is worth more than a principality 60 leagues away. It is a necessary measure to hide as much as possible these schemes of ambition, and, if one can, to awaken Europe’s envy against other powers, on the occasion of which one strikes one’s blow. This can occur, and the house of Austria, whose ambition goes unconcealed, will needlessly attract the envy and jealousy of the great powers. Secrecy is an essential virtue for politics as well as for the art of war.

preugren.jpgI note with amusement the statements on the value of a Russian alliance, the unreliability of a French guarantee, and the perfidy of Albion, observations which would no doubt resonate with many people in later centuries. Plus ça change !

Frederick briefly discusses the laws of Prussia [2], describing them as “fairly wisely made.” He argues no changes are needed, but that there must be regular visits to provincial courts to punish malfeasance, for “the parties and the lawyers work to elude the best laws.” There should also be a review every 20 years to ensure the appeals process is not abused through endless trials. These highlight the importance of regular, mindful care for one’s state.

Harmonious Government: All Branches Working Towards the Same Goal

Frederick then discusses finances, the military, and foreign policy as forming the coherent whole which government must be. He again emphasizes frugality and a healthy war chest:

TOTAL COMBINATION OF GOVERNMENT.

Given that the country is poor, and has no resources, it is necessary for the sovereign to always have a well-furnished treasury, to bear at least a few campaigns. The only resources which he may find when in need consist of a loan of 5 million from the Landschaft [a bank decreed by Frederick, made up of noblemen, allowing the state to borrow from the Prussian population itself], and about 4 million which he can draw from the bank; but that is all.

Public money, he says, should be spent on various development projects such as fortresses, manufactures, or infrastructure “in order to make the State’s constitution more solid.”

The sovereign should then be frugal with his subjects’ blood and treasure. He must himself be an example of rectitude, or his subjects will also become wasteful. Frederick emphasizes “especially” the maintenance of good morals, which can only be achieved if the power of money is kept in check. It must be impossible for the wealthy to buy honors, as they do in France. Frederick advocates a muscular natalism in order to produce more citizens and soldiers:

These reasons which I have just put forward demand that this country’s sovereign be economical and a man who maintains the greatest order in his affairs. An equally valid reason as the first is also joined to this: it is that if he gives the example of profusion, his subjects, who are poor, want to imitate him, and ruin themselves. One must especially, to support manners, grant distinctions only according to merit and not for wealth; the poor observation of this principle in France has meant the loss of the of the nation’s manners, which previously knew only the path of honor to achieve glory, and which believes at present that it is enough to be rich to be honored. As the wars are an abyss into which men fall, one must be watchful that this country be as peopled as possible, from which another good results, which is that the countryside is better cultivated and landowners are more at ease.

Frederick denies the utility of a navy for Prussia for this would divide the country’s efforts and anyway be too small to be useful. Instead, one should concentrate one’s efforts on the most decisive point, in this case the army:

I do not believe that this country should ever be persuaded to form a military navy. Here are the reasons. There are in Europe great navies, that is: that of England, those of France, Spain, Denmark, and Russia. Never will we be able to equal them; hence, with a few ships, remaining always inferior to other nations, the expense would be useless. Add to this that, to maintain a fleet, the money this would cost would force us to reform land troops, that this country is not sufficiently populated to provide recruits for the army and sailors for ships, and finally, that sea battles are rarely decisive; from which I conclude that it is better to have the best army in Europe than the worst fleet of the maritime powers.

Frederick argues that policy must “look as far as possible into the future” but recognizes that unforeseen circumstances will always arise. As such, the best one can do is to be ever-prepared so as to be able seize opportunities. Interestingly, Frederick explicitly affirms that political control of the military must serve to radicalize warfare to ensure it reaches the given political objectives: “War itself must be conducted according the principles of policy, to inflict the bloodiest blows against one’s enemies.” Frederick advises great enterprises, even if these are risky, rather than wars for trifling objectives:

Policy must look ahead as far as possible into the future, and judge the circumstances of Europe, either to form alliances, or to counter the projects of one’s enemies. One must not believe that it can bring about events; but when these present themselves, it must seize them to take advantage of them. That is why finances must be in order. It is for this reason that there must be money saved up, so that the government is ready to act as soon as political reasons indicate the moment. War itself must be conducted according the principles of policy, to inflict the bloodiest blows against one’s enemies. It was according to these principles which prince Eugene [of Savoy, an Austrian commander] acted, he who made his name immortal by the march and the battle of Turin, by those of Höchstädt and of Belgrade. These great projects of the campaign do not all succeed; but when they are vast, there always results more advantages than by these little projects where one limits oneself to taking an insignificant town [bicoque] on the border. That is how the count [Maurice] of Saxony [a French commander] gave battle at Rocoux to be able to execute the winter according to his designs upon Brussels, which succeeded.

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Frederick stresses that foreign policy, the military, and finances must form a coherent whole. Otherwise they are vain, as in the case of France, which as Europe’s largest state could afford to become flabby and incoherent. Prussia did not have this luxury:

It is obvious that, from all that I have just said, that policy, the military, and finances are branches which are so tightly bound together, that they cannot be separated. One must carry them out all at once, and by their combination, subject to the rules of good policy, there results the greatest advantages for the State. In France, there is a king which manages each branch separately. There is a minister who presides, either to finances, to war, or to foreign affairs. But the rallying point is lacking, and these branches, not being united, diverge, and the ministers are each busy with only the details of their department, without anyone uniting the objects of their works to one fixed goal. If such a thing happened in this State [Prussia], it would be lost, because great monarchies go on despite excesses, and support themselves by their weight and intrinsic strength, and small States are soon crushed, if all in them is not strength, life, and vigor.

Frederick concludes that a small and insecure state such as Prussia must always be led by a watchful prince:

Here are a few reflections and my ideas on the government of this country, which, so long as it has not taken greater consistency and better borders, must be governed by princes who are always watchful, ears pricked, to observe their neighbors, ready to defend themselves from one day to the next against the pernicious projects of their enemies.

Conclusion: Power Through Will

Of Western and European states today, only the United States of America and the Russian Federation can be considered even moderately “big” in a world in which we face China’s 1.4 billion, India’s 1.25 billion, and, in another mode, the endless hordes to come from an Africa destined to number 4 billion this century [3]. Furthermore, any European-American successor states to the current U.S.A. would likely number around 150 million. Frederick’s directives for maximizing the power of small states through a frugal and martial government, characterized above all by a coherent will, are then very relevant to us.

The Greater-European World is made up dozens of states, each of which could, under enlightened leadership, work for the salvation of our people. The means of a small state are necessarily modest, but let no one say that these are worthless. Prussia began as a small enterprise. But by the luck of having successive great princes, a political “germ-cell” was set, the logic of which was favorable to growth, turning a minor principality of 2 million into a Great Power of 5 million, and then into a united Germany preeminent on the Continent, fit for two awesome bids for regional hegemony. The example of Prussia shows that even small states, when armed with unity and will, can maximize their potential and, when the stars align, achieve wonders.

Times have changed since Frederick’s. We, for the most part, do not need to be so mindful of military security as in the past. Indeed, most traditional military conflict in our lands, lamentably, is intra-European. The inherent disorganization of the Third World, nuclear weapons, and the diminishing returns of military occupation in the modern era mean that there are few conventional threats to our security.[9] The Western World’s conflicts with the Arab nations and Iran, far from being motivated by any objective threat, have largely been driven by a hypertrophied U.S. imperial establishment and the malignant influence of the Israel Lobby in Washington, Paris, and London.

The lasting insight in Frederick’s Report on the Prussian Government is the need for a coherent will: that government should concentrate on its core objectives, that all the parts work in harmony towards this, and that this will be steadily maintained over long periods of time. Frederick’s goal was the security of his state and as such he concentrated on maximizing military capability and constant readiness to seize opportunities in foreign affairs. Other objectives may be served by these Prussian virtues: constant mindfulness, frugality, preparation, and setting a good example for one’s citizens.

Frederick emphasizes the importance in politics of encouraging family-formation and maintaining public morals, which is to say shape the society’s culture and enforce positive social norms. The nation and state must always be carefully tended and cultivated that it, like a beautiful garden, flourish and grow. Frederick organized his entire state towards the goal of military power and security. Perhaps we may say that the endangered Europeans of today must similarly organize their states, through systematic cultural and population policies, towards the goals of demographic expansion, genetic quality, and unity within our great family of nations.[10]

Frederick’s patriotic prince can in our times seem something like an alien. We have grown used to living under governments dedicated above all to individual caprice and equalizing victimhood. Our people are so demoralized, that even the idea that our men and women, especially the best of them, should be expected and encouraged to raise children is considered outright offensive by many. Frederick shows that such misguided doctrines do not favor national survival.

We are used to “politics” meaning only more-or-less loathed electoral politicians winning office by publicly pandering to the mob’s bottomless appetite for consumerism and narrow sectional interests, while actually serving the hostile, increasingly post-national oligarchs who finance their political parties and control the mass media who significantly determine the public’s views. In Frederick’s time, the manners of the average citizen, be he farmer, burgher, or nobleman, were shaped by a hard life, national laws, and a state church. Today, besides the general slouching, the education of the youth and the public at large is largely left, to a small, rootless international clique of media moguls, from Carlos Slim and Rupert Murdoch, to Michael Eisner and Sumner Redstone. These men pursue their particular financial, ideological, and ethnic[11] interests, rather than the national good.

This is not inevitable however. At the close of Frederick’s reign, the population of Prussia approached that of England. The two countries in later centuries would enjoy similar rises in power and greatness. We may say that Anglo-America is what northern Europeans tend to when plenty and security afford them the luxury of individualism and egalitarianism. Prussia is what northern Europeans tend to when, driven by poverty and insecurity, they must organize and discipline themselves for collective survival.

The European peoples, we can be sure, will suffer ever-greater insecurity in the twenty-first century with their dwindling numbers, their swamping by outsiders, and the rise of Asia and Africa. By this suffering, the Europeans will painfully learn from their mistakes and again know the true worth of things. No doubt, we will see Prussians again.

In the twentieth century, the logic of Europe and the West had been one of unbridled expansion. From a small appendage of Eurasia, we burst forth and conquered virtually the entire world and multiplied to become a full third of humanity. Since the catastrophic world wars, we have been in headlong decline and, in time, we will have lost not merely our empires, but of even our own historic homelands. By the end of this century, we will be lucky if we still make up 5 percent of humanity. We must arrest our decline by again establishing, by will and discipline, a logic of expansion. The Great King provides us with a powerful model. Every European nation must play its part.

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Notes

1. As published in Johann Preuss (ed.), Œuvres de Frédéric le Grand, vol. 9 (Berlin: Royal Printer, 1848), pp. 209-220. http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/ [4]

2. On the recurring controversy concerning pan-European political unity: small states’ options and character are indeed, in the long run, generally determined by great geopolitical blocs and empires, often of a continental scale. But it is also true that the larger a polity is, the less cohesive and coherent it is likely to be. In any event, one must not confuse a unitary empire with a multinational and multistatal confederation. The latter is necessarily prone to impotence as each state holds a de facto and/or de jure veto and each nation does not identify with the others. Thus, while a confederation may be a useful thing, one should not place exaggerated hopes in it or believe this to be the critical locus of politics. The locus of politics is always the actual sovereign. Nationalists understand the sovereign acting through the nation-state: mass consciousness is only possible in a nation; political action is only possible through a state. An empire may or may not be preferable, but that is always founded through the spilling of blood, never by signing bits of paper. For the truth of this, I refer you to the history of the United States before Lincoln, of the German Confederation before Bismarck, of Austria-Hungary, Canada, Belgium, and the European Union. (Concerning the latter two, there has been amusing example of paralysis in recent weeks as the region of Wallonia vetoed Belgian support for a major EU-Canada free trade agreement. Thus multinational polities were leading to vetocracy squared: Wallonia vetoed Belgian policy, and Belgium vetoed EU policy. And yet, one finds a thousand people in the political mainstream who believe the permanently paralyzed EU is the primary answer to European decline . . .) I also, again, direct you the very eloquent statements explicating these matters in De Gaulle’s press conferences and Hitler’s Second Book.

3. That it remained unpublished during his lifetime is unsurprising: Frederick is quite frank about his coveting neighboring Saxony in order have more buffer territory on his vulnerable southern border. These ambitions, he insisted, had to remain secret. Prussia would indeed acquire 40 percent of Saxon territory at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

4. I would add that finance and culture can be said to make up an entire society’s nervous system. Which begs the question: what does it mean if a particular ethnic group, especially if hostile to the majority, achieves commanding influence in a society’s financial and cultural institutions?

In the natural world, the principles and examples [5] from which should always be in our minds, we observe Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, a parasitic fungus able to hijack ants’ behavioural system and turn them into “zombie ants.” According to Wikipedia:

Infected hosts leave their canopy nests and foraging trails for the forest floor, an area with a temperature and humidity suitable for fungal growth; they then use their mandibles to affix themselves to a major vein on the underside of a leaf, where the host remains until its eventual death. The process leading to mortality takes 4–10 days, and includes a reproductive stage where fruiting bodies grow from the ant’s head, rupturing to release the fungus’s spores.

5. An archaic French currency.

6. Presumably Bürger commoners.

7. Certainly, the continued existence of the state is a sine qua non of any policy, but we as nationalists add: policy must serve the existence and cultivation of the people from which the state derives.

8. Here, presumably meaning East Prussia.

9. There are exceptions obviously: Turkey is a threat to Greece, and China is a threat to Russia. In the long term, we also cannot exclude that Africa’s population explosion will eventually form a conventional military threat. What would a Spain reduced to aged pensioners and effeminate young leftists be able to oppose to a few million Islamized Africans led marching upon Europe, no doubt led, according to their genius, by a new Mahdi or General Butt Naked?

10. I observe one prominent “willful state” active in the world today: the Jewish State of Israel. This country has, through a cross-partisan political and social consensus, consistently pursued policies of demographic and territorial expansion, for the security and power of the Jewish people and against the Arabs, whom Orthodox Jewish consider subhuman. The Jews’ fertility rate in Israel is now well above replacement with over 3 children per woman, equaling the Arab rate. (Admittedly, Israel has been successful in large part thanks to its diplomatic and financial parasitism upon the Western nations, to the tune of hundreds of billions of dollars and thousands of European lives, through the tireless efforts of the Jewish-Zionist lobby. But that is but another example successful ethnic activism, only possible because we are not yet ethnically organized.)

11. Unless, obviously, they are of European descent . . .

Article printed from Counter-Currents Publishing: http://www.counter-currents.com

URL to article: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/11/the-willful-state/

URLs in this post:

[1] Image: http://www.counter-currents.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Frederick_the_Great_after_the_Battle_of_Kolin_by_Julius_Schrader.jpg

[2] the laws of Prussia: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/11/enlightened-patriarchy-part-1/

[3] an Africa destined to number 4 billion this century: http://www.unz.com/isteve/the-worlds-most-important-graph/

[4] http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/: http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/

[5] examples: https://twitter.com/natureisscary

 

L’Ours et le Mandarin: le “partenariat stratégique” sino-russe au crible de l’Histoire

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L’Ours et le Mandarin: le “partenariat stratégique” sino-russe au crible de l’Histoire

Galvanisée par la dégradation progressive de ses relations avec l’Occident à la suite de son action en Ukraine et en Syrie, la Russie de Vladimir Poutine a toujours voulu voir en la Chine un partenaire “alternatif” sur lequel elle pourrait s’appuyer, à la fois sur les plans économique et international. Cette ambition se heurte toutefois très souvent à la réalité des objectifs de Pékin, dont les dirigeants n’ont jamais été particulièrement enthousiasmés par le concept d’un bloc anti-occidental au sens strict du terme. Les notions de “partenariat stratégique” ou même d’“alliance”, si elles sont devenues très à la mode dans les dîners mondains, ne recouvrent donc que très imparfaitement la logique du fait sino-russe.

Nous vous proposons cette analyse des relations sino-russes en deux parties, voici la première.

tchaadaev.jpg« Nous ne sommes ni de l’Orient, ni de l’Occident », concluait sur un ton particulièrement pessimiste le philosophe russe Tchaadaïev dans l’une de ses plus célèbres Lettres philosophiques. Principal précurseur du bouillonnement intellectuel de la Russie impériale de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, celui-ci fut l’un des premiers à théoriser l’idée d’une spécificité russe qui justifierait le fait qu’elle n’ait d’autre choix que de s’appuyer sur deux “béquilles”, dont l’une serait occidentale et l’autre orientale. Comme si le génie politique et industriel de l’Europe ne pouvait qu’être associé avec la créativité et la rationalité organisatrice de la Chine, qui partageait déjà avec la Russie la problématique de l’immensité du territoire et de sa bonne administration. Peine perdue pour Tchaadaïev, qui considérait que nul espoir n’était permis tant que le pays resterait engoncé dans l’archaïsme des tsars indignes de l’œuvre de Pierre le Grand, alors même que la Russie ne connaissait pas encore la violence anarchiste qui marquera la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle. Dans Apologie d’un fou, publié en 1837, il écrit et se désole : « Situés entre les deux grandes divisions du monde, entre l’Orient et l’Occident, nous appuyant d’un coude sur la Chine et de l’autre sur l’Allemagne, nous devrions réunir en nous les deux grands principes de la nature intelligente, l’imagination et la raison, et joindre dans notre civilisation les histoires du globe entier. Ce n’est point-là le rôle que la Providence nous a départi. »

De manière générale, la prophétie de Tchaadaïev s’est confirmée. L’équilibre qu’il appelait de ses vœux n’a jamais pu être trouvé, en particulier dans les relations de la Russie avec la Chine. Lorsque l’on “efface” le relief donné par la perspective historique, on a en effet tendance à voir dominer l’image d’un rapprochement constant et inexorable entre Moscou et Pékin, dont l’alliance servirait de contrepoids dans un monde dominé par la vision occidentale des relations internationales. Cette impression s’est particulièrement renforcée avec le discours de Vladimir Poutine donné à la 43e conférence de la sécurité de Munich en 2007, où ce dernier fustigea l’unilatéralisme qui avait présidé au déclenchement de la guerre en Irak en 2003 ainsi que le projet de bouclier antimissile prévu par l’Otan en Europe orientale. Ce serait toutefois négliger le fait que le premier mandat du président russe (2000-2004) fut marqué par un mouvement marqué d’affinité avec l’Occident, à tel point qu’il fut l’un des premiers à contacter George W. Bush à la suite du 11 septembre 2001 pour l’assurer de son soutien. Ce serait aussi oublier hâtivement que la relation sino-russe fut dominée pendant cinq siècles par l’importance des litiges territoriaux et que la Guerre froide fut pour les deux pays un théâtre d’affrontement pour le leadership du camp socialiste, ce qui annihila toute perspective d’un bloc unifié.

Cinq siècles de conflictualité

Si elles semblent très éloignées de par la langue et la culture, la Russie et la Chine ont toutefois toujours eu en commun de partager une réalité géographique similaire, dont l’immensité du territoire est la pierre angulaire. Une proximité également traduite dans les institutions, le modèle impérial historiquement développé par les deux pays ayant constitué un facteur favorable à une tradition administrative très fortement centralisatrice. Il y a aussi la question de la diaspora, particulièrement prégnante pour Moscou comme pour Pékin, avec 25 millions de Russes en dehors des frontières – principalement dans les anciens États de l’Union soviétique – et 20 millions de Chinois sur la seule île de Taïwan. Des nationaux “du dehors” souvent considérés comme des compatriotes perdus qu’il conviendrait a minima de protéger, et au mieux de faire revenir dans l’escarcelle nationale. Il y a enfin cette immense frontière commune de 4250 km qui s’étend de la Mongolie jusqu’aux rives de l’océan Pacifique, et dont la définition exacte n’a, jusqu’à récemment, jamais été arrêtée.

StolypinCrop.JPGLes premiers contacts diplomatiques entre les deux pays sont traditionnellement datés de la délégation envoyée par la Chine au tsar Michel en 1618. Si le traité de Nertchinsk de 1689 abordera pour la première fois la question des litiges territoriaux avec le tracé d’une première frontière, la relation entre les deux pays n’en restera pas moins toujours teintée de méfiance. La question territoriale gagnera en importance dans la deuxième moitié du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle, quand le Premier ministre Piotr Stolypine lancera un vaste plan de modernisation de l’Extrême-Orient russe. Entre 1906 et 1913, plus de 3,5 millions de paysans russes traverseront l’Oural pour s’installer dans les terres inhospitalières de la Sibérie orientale, dont certaines parties attirent grandement la convoitise de Pékin.

Mais le véritable rapprochement entre les deux pays ne s’imposera qu’à la faveur de la proximité idéologique offerte par les effets conjugués de la révolution russe d’octobre 1917 et de la prise de pouvoir du Parti communiste chinois (PCC) emmené par la figure emblématique de Mao Zedong en 1949. Le 14 février 1950, un premier traité d’amitié, d’alliance et d’assistance mutuelle est signé entre les deux États. L’URSS de Staline, auréolée de l’immense prestige de sa victoire sur l’Allemagne nazie en 1945 et forte d’un important savoir-faire en matière industrielle, envoie dans ce cadre plus de 10 000 ingénieurs en Chine afin de former le personnel local. Malgré la divergence fondamentale avec les conceptions économiques de Mao Zedong, qui privilégiait le développement agraire massif et pas l’industrie lourde, cette coopération se poursuit jusqu’au milieu des années 1950. Portée par l’espoir de Moscou de pouvoir constituer avec la Chine un grand bloc socialiste qui lui permettrait de peser de manière plus importante sur les affaires internationales, cette politique se heurte toutefois à la dégradation progressive des relations entre les deux pays. Ces discordances croissantes sont, en grande partie, liées au refus de Nikita Khrouchtchev de transférer la technologie nucléaire au régime chinois, à la publication du rapport portant son nom sur les crimes du stalinisme et à son choix de dialoguer régulièrement avec Washington dans le cadre de la “coexistence pacifique”, une véritable hérésie conceptuelle pour un Mao Zedong resté très attaché à l’orthodoxie marxiste-léniniste.

La rupture est finalement consommée entre 1961 et 1962, notamment après une gestion de la crise des missiles de Cuba jugée calamiteuse par Pékin. Dans la conception maoïste, la Chine possédait une légitimité au moins équivalente à celle de l’URSS pour assurer le leadership du camp socialiste. C’est la raison pour laquelle le pays chercha à se détacher du grand-frère soviétique en dégageant une voie qui lui était spécifique. En ce sens, la Chine est incontestablement parvenue à certains résultats : obtention de l’arme nucléaire en 1964, reconnaissance par la France la même année et admission au Conseil de sécurité de l’Onu en 1971, en lieu et place de Taïwan. Elle développe dans ce cadre la doctrine du “tiers-mondisme” afin de concurrencer Moscou dans le soutien aux États attirés par l’idéologie marxiste, politique dont Pékin tirera bien peu de fruits puisque seule l’Albanie d’Enver Hoxha finira par s’y rallier à la faveur de la rupture avec l’Union soviétique en 1961.

Un pic de tension avec l’URSS est atteint en 1969, lorsque l’Armée rouge et l’Armée populaire de libération s’affrontent à l’occasion de plusieurs escarmouches aux abords du fleuve Amour, sur l’affluent de l’Oussouri. Si l’enjeu tient dans le contrôle de l’île de Damanski (Zhenbao en mandarin), ces incidents illustrent principalement le problème plus large des différends frontaliers entre les deux pays, abordés plusieurs fois par la voie des traités, mais jamais véritablement réglés et toujours présents à l’esprit des deux parties.

DengXiaoping.Time.1979.pngSeule la mort de Mao Zedong en 1976, qui entraînera en Chine un certain recul de l’impératif de “pureté marxiste”, permettra d’engager un premier rapprochement. Son successeur, Deng Xiaoping, a longtemps été considéré comme un acteur majeur de la réconciliation sino-soviétique, dans un contexte où le traité d’amitié signé en 1950 était sur le point d’expirer (en 1979). Mais le Deng Xiaoping “réconciliateur” des années 1980 fut aussin aux côtés de Mao, l’un des plus solides partisans de la “ligne dure” face au révisionnisme soviétique initié par Khrouchtchev. Il définira même, en 1979, l’URSS comme « l’adversaire le plus résolu de la République populaire de Chine », avant même les États-Unis. Deng Xiaoping posa donc trois préalables au rapprochement avec Moscou : le retrait des divisions de l’Armée rouge encore stationnées en Mongolie, l’arrêt du soutien soviétique aux opérations militaires que le Vietnam menait au Cambodge depuis 1977 et le démantèlement de toutes les bases militaires situées dans les pays avoisinants la Chine. S’il s’éloigna radicalement du maximalisme de Mao Zedong, il prouva en revanche que la logique de blocs ou le suivisme idéologique n’avaient rien d’automatique dans un contexte où l’URSS redoublait d’activité sur la scène internationale. L’invasion de l’Afghanistan initiée en 1979 par la Russie a d’ailleurs mis fin à ces premières négociations. Cette situation n’a guère connu d’amélioration dans une Union soviétique minée par des difficultés économiques structurelles et une forte instabilité politique interne, avec une première moitié des années 1980 où se succèdent pas moins de quatre dirigeants différents (Brejnev, Andropov, Tchernenko et Gorbatchev). Seul le retrait partiel d’Afghanistan, initié en 1986, permettra d’ouvrir la voie à ce qui constitue le véritable tournant du rapprochement sino-russe : la “parenthèse Eltsine” dans les années 1990.

D’un partenariat constructif à une alliance stratégique

Paradoxalement, la chute de l’URSS en 1991 et l’émergence d’une Fédération de Russie la même année ne constituent pas – du moins dans un premier temps – un facteur de rapprochement avec la Chine. Dans son choix d’une rupture radicale avec un passé soviétique dont le deuil ne sera jamais véritablement fait par la population russe, Boris Eltsine s’appuie sur de jeunes cadres formés dans les années 1980. C’est par exemple le cas de Boris Nemtsov, dont l’assassinat à Moscou le 25 février 2015 a fait grand bruit, en Russie comme dans les médias occidentaux. Sous le patronage du Ministre de l’économie Iegor Gaïdar, ces nouveaux cadres résolument libéraux conduisent la Russie à opérer dans un premier temps un certain alignement sur la politique de l’Union européenne et des États-Unis, dans la continuité des choix effectués par Mikhaïl Gorbatchev pendant la Guerre du Golfe. Autant d’éléments qui ne laisseront qu’une place limitée à une politique ambitieuse de rapprochement avec la Chine, alors que celle-ci cherchait dans le même temps à améliorer ses relations avec Washington, considérablement dégradées par la question latente de Taïwan et la répression des manifestations de la place Tian’anmen en 1989.

Primakov_03.jpgIl est assez coutumier de désigner Vladimir Poutine, arrivé au pouvoir en 2000 mais dont l’ascension a été permise par Boris Eltsine, comme l’artisan fondateur du repositionnement russe dans la politique internationale, et en particulier du rapprochement avec la Chine. Il serait toutefois plus juste d’attribuer ce rôle au Ministre des affaires étrangères nommé par Eltsine en 1996, Evgueni Primakov. Brillant arabisant et ancien officier des services de renseignement soviétiques, il se distingua par une saille restée célèbre dans le pays : « la Russie doit marcher sur ses deux jambes ». Il s’agissait déjà d’une référence – massivement réutilisée par la suite par Vladimir Poutine – au positionnement central occupé par la Russie dans l’espace eurasiatique, mais aussi à cette “particularité” chère à Tchaadaïev et dont elle devrait user afin de poursuivre la voie qui est la sienne. Le rapprochement avec Pékin apparaissait alors comme une évidence dans un contexte où l’économie russe était minée par le choc brutal des privatisations impulsées par Iegor Gaïdar, tandis que le gouvernement et les autorités militaires subissaient l’humiliation de leur défaite dans la Première guerre de Tchétchénie.

Du côté chinois, le nouveau président Jiang Zeming cherchait quant à lui à construire pour la Chine une stature à sa mesure sur le plan international, alors que le pays se trouvait encore sous le coup de plusieurs sanctions européennes et américaines en réponse aux évènements de la place Tian’anmen. Sur le plan régional, les autorités chinoises se trouvaient de plus en plus préoccupées par le “pivot Pacifique” engagé par les États-Unis au milieu des années 1990, et qui avait conduit Washington à intervenir militairement dans la crise de Taïwan en 1995 ou encore à se rapprocher de son allié japonais.

Pour les deux pays, les conditions du rapprochement étaient donc assez largement réunies, ce qui aboutira à la signature par Boris Eltsine et Jiang Zeming d’un premier partenariat en avril 1996. Il est d’ailleurs très intéressant d’observer le subtil changement sémantique opéré par la diplomatie russe dans la définition de sa relation avec Pékin : qualifié dans la première moitié des années 1990 de « partenariat constructif » (« konstrouktivnoyé partnerstvo »), le lien avec la Chine est désormais défini comme un « partenariat stratégique » (« strategitcheskoyé partnerstvo »), une formule nettement plus offensive proposée par Evgueni Primakov, qui s’inscrit dans une certaine stratégie de communication vis-à-vis des autres partenaires de la Russie. Ce qui commence déjà à prédominer, c’est bien la nécessité d’une certaine convergence pratique dans la gestion des relations internationales, ce qui sera confirmé par la déclaration conjointe sino-russe de 1997, conçue pour compléter le partenariat de 1996. On y retrouve avec intérêt tous les éléments de langage qui sont encore aujourd’hui utilisés par Pékin et Moscou dans leur traitement des affaires internationales : « nécessité d’un monde multipolaire », « refus de l’hégémonie », « primauté du droit et de la coopération entre les peuples », « non-intervention et respect de la souveraineté nationale »… La “multipolarité” en particulier est ainsi transformée en un quasi-slogan de principe pour Moscou, qui y voyait un concept efficace pour contester la prééminence américaine dans la limite des moyens dont disposait le Kremlin dans les années 1990.

La gestion du dossier particulièrement complexe de la Yougoslavie ne fait qu’accentuer ce sentiment de dépossession et d’impuissance. La Russie se révèle incapable de soutenir son alliée serbe en empêchant une intervention militaire de l’Otan au Kosovo entre mars 1998 et juin 1999. Pékin comme Moscou adopteront par ailleurs une position similaire sur le dossier, l’action de l’Alliance atlantique en Serbie étant perçue comme une atteinte au principe de souveraineté nationale orchestrée avec un contournement du système décisionnel du Conseil de Sécurité de l’Onu – l’opération fut effectivement déclenchée sans mandat. Même à quinze ans d’intervalle, le précédent du Kosovo continue de résonner – à tort ou à raison – pour Pékin et Moscou comme la preuve indéniable que le système de concertation offert par l’Onu est vicié dans son principe même.

Cette idée justifie un rapprochement des deux capitales sur des questions plus sensibles liées à la sécurité régionale et internationale, déjà engagée par la réunion des “Shanghai Five” en 1996 (Chine, Russie, Kirghizstan, Kazakhstan, Tadjikistan). Même l’institution militaire russe, encore très imprégnée par un personnel majoritairement issu de l’establishment soviétique et très conservatrice vis-à-vis du secret industriel, accepte des transferts de technologies militaires de plus en plus nombreux en direction de Pékin. Ce choix ne fut d’ailleurs pas uniquement pris pour des raisons purement politiques : il a été rendu impérativement nécessaire par le délitement complet du complexe militaro-industriel russe et par la perte de ses principaux clients en Europe centrale et orientale (Allemagne de l’Est, Hongrie, Tchécoslovaquie, Bulgarie, Roumanie, Pologne, etc.). La Chine s’est alors rapidement imposée comme un débouché naturel, en particulier pour une industrie de l’armement dont le revenu reposait à 80 % sur les recettes des exportations d’armes.

À l’échelle de l’histoire longue, le rapprochement sino-russe pourrait donc être considéré comme un épiphénomène, particulièrement lorsque l’on sait l’importance des litiges territoriaux qui ont régulièrement empoisonné les relations entre les deux pays, de même que leur lutte acharnée pour l’hégémonie sur le camp socialiste durant la Guerre froide. La rapidité de l’évolution du monde après la chute de l’empire soviétique – que presque aucune âme n’avait été capable de prédire – a favorisé un rapprochement devenu non pas naturel, mais légitime pour deux pays dont les intérêts géopolitiques et la conception antilibérale des relations internationales constituent, en apparence au moins, les deux piliers d’une relation potentiellement “stratégique”. La Russie de Vladimir Poutine, très largement enfantée par celle de Boris Eltsine, exploitera ainsi cet héritage et tentera – avec un succès parfois assez largement contestable – d’en faire un des principaux vecteurs de son “retour” sur la scène internationale.

Nos Desserts :

lundi, 21 novembre 2016

Wyndham Lewis, Ernst Jünger & Italian Futurism - Paul Bingham

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Wyndham Lewis, Ernst Jünger & Italian Futurism - Paul Bingham

Robert Stark and co-host Alex von Goldstein talk to Paul Bingham. This show is a continuation of our discussion about Aleister Crowley and Aristocratic Individualism



Topics include:

How Wyndham Lewis, Ernst Jünger, Aleister Crowley, and the Italian Futurist, were individuals who existed outside the liberal reactionary/traditionalist paradigm, and viewed the world in a realist way unbiased by ideology
The cult of Positivism
Italian Futurism, how it was marginalized due to it’s ties to Mussolini, but made a major impact on the arts
How Ayn Rand was influenced by Italian Futurism
Robert Stark’s talk with Rabbit about Italian Futurism
Wynham Lewis’s Vorticist movement, his magazine Blast, and his Rebel Art Centre
The philosophy of the Vortex, which views everything as energy constantly in motion
The rivalry between Italian Futurist Filippo Marinetti and Wyndham Lewis, and how Lewis critiqued Italian Futurism for putting to much emphasis on technology
Wynham Lewis’s The Art of Being Ruled, which made the case that the artist was the best to rule, and that capitalism and liberal democracy suppressed genuine cultural elites
How the book addresses Transsexualism, and anthropological findings on the Third Sex
Kerry Bolton’s essay on Wyndham Lewis
Lewis’s relationship with fascism, how he published the book Hitler (1931), which presented Adolf Hitler as a “man of peace,” but latter wrote an attack on antisemitism: The Jews, are they human?( 1939)
The influence of war and violence on Italian Futurism
The Manifesto of Futurism
The Futurist Cookbook
Futurism is about testing what works, and rejecting traditions that don’t work
The futurist believed that every generation should create their own city, and futurist Antonio Sant’Elia’s Plan for Città Nuova (“New City”)
Paul worked on a book that was never published, “The Motor City and the Zombie Apocalypse,” about how the motor city is incompatible with human nature
The effects of global technological materialism on culture, and how technology needs the right people and culture to work
Jean Baudrillard point that the Italians have the best symbiosis between culture and technological progress
The Transhumanist concept of Cybernetics, which is rewiring the brain, and how the futurist used poetry as a precursor to cybernetics
Paul’s point that futurist movements such as cyberpunk, and Neoreaction are more focused on Live action role-playing, but are not serious about pushing the limits
The intellectual and transcendental value of LSD and DMT, Ernst Jünger’s experimentation with acid, but they are only effective if the right people use them
Paul’s point that the only real futurist are underground, and experimenting in third world countries
Aristocratic individualism, and Paul’s opinion that Ernst Jünger is the best example, and Jünger’s concept of the Anarch
Ernst Jünger’s science fiction novel The Glass Bees
Ernst Jünger’s “The Worker”

mercredi, 16 novembre 2016

Enlightened Patriarchy: Frederick the Great’s Principles of Lawmaking

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Enlightened Patriarchy:
Frederick the Great’s Principles of Lawmaking

Perhaps the most impressive Western tradition of statecraft, at least in the modern era, is that of Prussia. To be sure, the liberal-democratic tradition launched by the United States [2] and France is formidable, and it is not without reason that it today dominates our world. But the greatness of America and France also relied upon a prosaic factor: sheer demographic and geographic size. Little Prussia in contrast accomplished feats with absolutely miserable resources, raising herself up among the great powers and founding the German nation-state through sheer force of will. The Prussian “authoritarian” tradition, with its emphasis on hierarchy, community, and martial prowess, is then a useful counterpoise to the liberal-democratic one we take for granted today. Clausewitz and Carl Schmitt must be read beside Jefferson and Tocqueville [3].[1]

The most illustrious of all the Prussian leaders was Frederick the Great, a great political reformer and military commander who also cultivated a reputation as a philosophical thinker in his own right. Given how rare it is for generals and politicians to be particularly thoughtful, Frederick the Great merits all the more to be read by young Westerners in search of their heritage and a usable past. I propose then a reading of some of Frederick’s quite substantial philosophical and political writings.

Frederick’s Dissertation on the Reasons to Establish or Abrogate the Laws (Dissertation sur les raisons d’établir ou d’abroger les lois, 1750),[2] written after a decade in power and the hard-won conquest of Silesia, is admirably clear in its writing (how rare that can be!) and showcases wide reading and historical knowledge.[3] Many of Frederick’s themes and arguments retain all their relevance to this day. As this text is apparently unavailable in English, I will quote from it at length.[4] Unusually for a reigning monarch, the Dissertation was made public, thus showcasing the King’s philosophical credentials and stirring European debate.

Frederick’s ideal government is an enlightened patriarchy. He notes that “family fathers” have played an enormous role in the law throughout history, both as lawmakers and as legal masters of the household. For Frederick, the laws should serve to shape custom and enforce public morals, with the interests of the community overriding those of individuals. But this firm law must also be humane, rational, and moderate. Social conventions should be examined in this light and reformed accordingly. Frederick concludes with two proposals as examples: ending the stigma of bastardy, so as to prevent illegal abortions leading to the deaths of both the bastard and the mother, and a pan-European ban on dueling, the latter often causing the death of valuable citizens.

To know how to make laws, the practical Frederick advises looking to history:

Those who wish to acquire an exact knowledge of the way in which the laws must be established and abrogated can only look to history. We see there that all nations have had particular laws, that these laws were established in succession, and that much time has always been necessary for men to reach something reasonable. We see there that the legislators whose laws have lasted the longest are those who had as their goal public happiness, and who best knew the genius of the people whose government they regulated.

According to Frederick then, history teaches that the establishment of good laws requires patience, public-spiritedness, and harmony with “the genius of people,” which might also be termed national character. He shows an optimistic faith in reason typical of the Enlightenment: men require time to establish good laws, but once reached, these tend to spread. This accounts for the pervasiveness of Roman law: “These laws were found to be so admirable that after the destruction of the empire, they were embraced by the most civilized peoples.”

Frederick’s Dissertation provides a fairly impressive overview of the evolution of law from ancient to modern times, covering the Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and the modern European nations of England, France, and Germany. He draws from numerous sources, mentioned in the marginalia, including Herodotus, Plutarch, Livy, Cicero, and Tacitus for the Ancients and mainly French historians for the Moderns.

Frederick’s highlights from this enormous historical period are obviously not disinterested. These generally could be considered to subtly reinforce his position as an “enlightened despot” and pragmatic reformer, particularly interested in maximizing his state’s population and military power. In addition to “family fathers,” Frederick places a strong emphasis on the role of religion and, interestingly, usury in the development of the law. Hence, he expounds at length on Sparta, a martial state to which Prussia was often compared:

Lycurgus, king of Lacedaemon, used the laws of Minos, to which he added some of Osiris, which he collected himself from a journey he made to Egypt; he banished gold from his republic, silver, all sorts of currencies, and superfluous arts; he equally shared lands among the citizens.

This legislator, who intended to shape warriors, did not want any sort of passion to weaken their courage; he allowed for this effect the community of wives among citizens, which peopled the State, without excessively attaching private citizens to the sweet and tender bonds of marriage; all children were raised at public expense. When parents could prove that their children were born unhealthy, they were permitted to kill them. Lycurgus believed that a man who was not fit to bear arms did not deserve to live.

He ruled that helots, a kind of slave, would cultivate the soils, and that the Spartans would only busy themselves with the exercises which would render them fit for war.

The youth of both sexes wrestled; they exercised completely naked, in the public square.

Meals were regulated, where, without distinction of orders, all citizens ate together.

It was forbidden for foreigners to stay in Sparta, in order that their manners not corrupt those which Lycurgus had introduced.

Incompetent thieves were punished. Lycurgus had the intention of forming a military republic, and he succeeded in this.

The Aim of Law: Good Manners & Public Safety

csm_6.5_2dd71daf9a.jpgFrederick asserts that laws should aim to promote “[g]ood manners and public safety.” He is enormously concerned with civil peace, saying French chancellor Michel de l’Hôpital’s efforts to increase tolerance and defuse tensions between Catholics and Protestants during the Wars of Religion “worked for the salvation of the fatherland.” Laws may deal with politics (government), manners (criminal), and civil matters (contracts, usury).

But for Frederick, laws do not merely have the negative goal of suppressing crime and instability, but also the positive one of fostering good habits. Hence the laws have an important cultural role. He says “the laws are dikes against the overflowing of vices, they must be made respected by the terror of punishments,” but these should also be humane. The sovereign must protect “the majesty of the laws” if these are to have any power. This sometimes fails. Under the Roman Republic “the corruption of manners . . . led to an endless multiplication of laws.”

Frederick cites the Twelve Tablets of Rome, inspired by Solon, among the best laws. These had notably legalized posthumous recognition of children (in cases where the alleged father died before birth) and divorce: “These laws, so equitable and so just, restrained citizens’ freedom only in the cases when their abuse of it could harm the calm of families and the security of the republic.”

However, in judging what individual liberty and equal rights citizens should have, Frederick stresses that the aim must always be the public good. Many restrictions on individual liberty and “discriminations” against classes of citizens might at first appear unjust, but are actually upon closer examination found to serve the general welfare. Frederick cites the German practice of primogeniture in this regard:

Whoever has bothered to the examine the laws with a philosophical spirit will have no doubt found many which at first appear contrary to natural equity, and which however are not so. I content myself with citing the right of primogeniture. It seems that nothing is more just than sharing the paternal estate equally among all children. However experience proves that the most powerful inheritances, subdivided into many parts, reduce over time opulent families to indigence; which has led father preferring to disinherit their younger sons rather than prepare their house for a guaranteed decadence. And for the same reason, laws which appear bothersome and harsh with certain individuals are not less wise, so long as they tend towards the entire society’s advantage; this is a whole to which the enlightened legislator will constantly sacrifice the parts.

Thus, discrimination against younger sons, while unfair for those concerned, can be justified by its strengthening of the continuity of the family house. (I note in passing that some have claimed this passing on of the family household to  the first-born son has contributed to the strong German tradition of family businesses [the famous Mittelstand]. Conversely, the French Revolution’s egalitarian law of succession overrode the father’s will and equally distributed property among sons. Thus, estates tended to disintegrate over time. Some have blamed the catastrophic and lasting decline of French fertility in this period on these provisions, bourgeois fathers seeking to reduce their offspring to maintain their households.)

Certainly the American and French revolutionaries would not deny the importance of the general welfare, but Frederick is more explicit: the public good must come before the individual interest and narrow “rights.” In this he echoes the wisdom of classical philosophy, as when the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius [4] wrote: “What brings no benefit to the hive brings none to the bee. [. . .] What causes no harm to the city causes no harm to the citizen.”

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Patriarchy: A Realistic Ideal

Frederick ascribes an enormous role to the père de famille, the family father, both in the historical foundation of law and in establishing good laws in the present. He begins his historical account as follows:

It seems probably that family fathers were the first legislators: the need to establish order in their houses no doubt forced them to make domestic laws. Since these first times, and when men began to assemble in cities, the laws of these particular jurisdictions were found to be inadequate for a more numerous society. [. . .]

Disorders accrued in the cities, news vices were born, and the family fathers, as those with the greatest interest in repressing them, agreed, for their security, to oppose this excess.

Towards his conclusion, Frederick presents patriarchy as one of the best forms of government given humanity’s imperfect nature. He describes first a utopia in which government and laws would perfectly regulate society like clockwork:

A body of perfect laws would be the masterpiece of the human spirit concerning the government’s policy: one would observe there a unity of plan and rules so exact and proportioned, that a State driven by these laws would resemble a watch, whose springs have been made for one same goal; one would find there a deep knowledge of the human heart and the genius of the nation; punishments would be tempered, so that by maintained good manners, they would be neither light nor harsh, clear and precise rulings would never lead to legal dispute; they would consist in an exquisite choice of all that has been best in civil laws, and in an ingenious and simple application of these laws to the customs of the nation; all would be foreseen, all would be combined, and nothing would be subject to inconveniences: but perfect things do not pertain to humanity.

Human beings being imperfect, Frederick instead offers patriarchy as a realistic regime. Under patriarchy, the government’s public-spiritedness is ensured by a sense of family belonging with the people:

The peoples would have reason to be satisfied, if legislators placed themselves in their regard in the same mental dispositions of these family fathers who gave the first laws: they loved their children; the maxims they prescribed had as their goal only the happiness of their family.

This perspective largely resonates with evolutionary psychology’s later view that feelings of kinship enable in-group altruism and more generally on the centrality of family to human psychology.

Frederick highlights numerous examples throughout history of the importance of the father in law: parricide was so unthinkable to Solon he made no mention of it in his laws, while the Romans made the mere intention of parricide punishable by death. This did not mean the father should enjoy unlimited and tyrannical power, as Frederick also writes:

No laws revolts humanity more than this right of life and death which fathers had over their children in Sparta and Rome. In Greece, a father who was too poor to provide for the needs of a too numerous family allowed the children born in excess to perish; in Sparta and in Rome, if a child came to the world poorly-shaped, this sufficiently authorized the father to deprive him of his life.

It is worth observing here that if the killing of infants was not for an arbitrary individual purpose such as a father’s whim, but rather for a rational public purpose such as eugenics, this might meet Frederick’s criteria for a good law, given his previous assertion of the public good over individual interest.

friedrich_II.jpgFrederick’s advocacy of paternal authority is all the more poignant and significant in that his own father, Frederick-William, also known as the Soldier King, had been a harsh one. Frederick-William had often beaten his son and executed before Frederick’s eyes his youthful best friend (and possible lover), Hans von Katte, for “desertion.”

Undivided Authority

Frederick’s apology of patriarchy fits well with his arguing that the sovereign should enjoy undivided authority, free notably from parliaments. This enabled the sovereign to concentrate without distraction and formulate coherent laws. Coming from an absolute monarch, this was obviously not a disinterested position, but it was forcefully argued. Frederick stresses the dissensions between Senate and people which paralyzed the Roman Republic and writes on England:

Although England has many wise laws, it is perhaps the European country where they are the least in effect. Rapin Thoyras [a French historian] remarks very well that, by a vice of government, the power of the King is constantly in opposition to that of the parliament; that they watch each other, either to conserve their authority, or to extend it; which distracts the King and the representatives of the nation from the care which they should expend to maintain justice; and this turbulent and stormy government changes endlessly its laws by acts of parliament, according to whether the current situation and events forces it to do so; hence It follows that England is in the situation of more requiring reform of its jurisprudence than any other kingdom.

Frederick argues elsewhere that laws made by different authors will tend to contradict one another and be incoherent:

When in a State the laws are not assembled in a single body, there must be some who contradict each other; as they are the work of different legislators who did not work on the same scheme, they will lack unity which is so essential and so necessary to all important things.

He notes that nothing is worse for respect for the laws than internal contradiction. Hence, Frederick strongly argues for legal codification, citing many examples, from Justinian through Alfred the Great to Louis IX of France.

Frederick then explicitly rejects any doctrine of divided sovereignty or separation between executive and legislative authority, as found in the writings of Montesquieu and the American Constitution. No doubt Frederick would not be surprised by the often vague and incoherent texts produced by divided sovereigns, whether the representatives in the U.S. Congress or the heads of state of European summits.

To be continued . . .

Notes

1. My ability to directly study the Prussian tradition is sharply limited by my very inadequate knowledge of German. Concerning Frederick however, I am fortunate, as a blessed son of France, for the Great King wrote overwhelmingly in French. This reflected the preeminence of French as the European lingua franca of the eighteenth century and Frederick’s enthusiastic embrace of the French Enlightenment, or les Lumières. On other benefits of learning the French language, see Guillaume Durocher, “Learning French with Jean-Marie Le Pen,” [5] Counter-Currents, November 20, 2015.

2. As published in Johann Preuss, Œuvres de Frédéric le Grand, vol. 9 (Berlin: Royal Printer, 1848). http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/ [6]

3. Montesquieu is a possible but uncertain influence. Frederick makes clear in a letter that he had read Montesquieu’s Considerations on the Greatness and Decadence of the Romans. However, there is no mention of the French writer’s more famous Spirit of the Laws, which were published around the same time as the Dissertation’s writing.  There is confirmation that Frederick read the Spirit of the Laws afterwards. Anne Baillot and Brunhilde Wehinger note a number of parallels: on the law as representing the progressive development of human reason (Montesquieu: “The law, in general, is human reason.”), on the need to adapt law to “national genius” and circumstances, on a gentle approach to abortion, and in supporting the ban of torture. Anne Baillot and Brunilde Wehinger, “Frédéric II, Roi-philosophe et législateur,” HAL.archive-ouvertes.fr (2013). https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00788671/document [7]

4. Frederick’s works appears to be largely unavailable online in English. French and German versions of his complete works are available in scanned and text formats from the University of Trier. However, these are only available page-by-page rather than by chapter or book, which make referencing somewhat obnoxious.

Article printed from Counter-Currents Publishing: http://www.counter-currents.com

URL to article: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/11/enlightened-patriarchy-part-1/

URLs in this post:

[1] Image: http://www.counter-currents.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Friedrich_ii_campenhausen.jpg

[2] the United States: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/07/the-eternal-anglo-1/

[3] Tocqueville: http://www.theoccidentalobserver.net/2016/07/tocquevilles-patriotic-republic-nationalist-themes-in-democracy-in-america-part-1/

[4] Marcus Aurelius: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/09/the-prayers-of-marcus-aurelius/

[5] “Learning French with Jean-Marie Le Pen,”: http://www.counter-currents.com/2015/11/learning-french-with-jean-marie-le-pen/

[6] http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/: http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/fr/oeuvres/9/toc/

[7] https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00788671/document: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00788671/document

Enlightened Patriarchy:
Frederick the Great’s Principles of Lawmaking

Part 2

Moderation & Humaneness

Fried2-post.jpgThe sovereign has authority but, as with the father, this must be deserved. Frederick notes dispassionately that Publicola, one of the founders of the Roman Republic, had legalized tyrannicide. The laws must be fair and appropriate to the nation concerned, otherwise they will be soon be abolished and the people will revolt:

The legislators who establish laws in monarchies are typically themselves sovereign: if their laws are gentle and equitable, they will maintain themselves by their own accord, all individuals find their advantage in them; if they are harsh and tyrannical, they will soon be abolished, because they need to be maintained by violence, and the tyrant is alone against an entire people who only the desire to eliminate them.

Frederick argues that excessively harsh laws anyway cannot last. Draco, the first lawmaker of Athens, saw his notoriously tough legislation soon abrogated by Solon’s.

Frederick argues:  “Natural equity wishes that there be proportion between crime and punishment.” Punishment should take circumstances into account for “[t]here is an infinity between the destiny of a rich man and of an impoverished one.” Frederick claims that for a poor thief to steal a rich man’s gold watch was no great crime.

Frederick proposes a middle way between laxness and severity. He notes that the Ancient Egyptians did not punish thieves — the victims were legally allowed to rebuy their lost property from the thieves — a measure which was “the means of making thieves out of all Egyptians.”

In contrast, “[t]he French laws are of a terrible rigor,” for these prescribed the execution of domestic thieves so as to prevent the spread of their “seed.” Frederick claimed Prussia, by not executing nonviolent domestic thieves, had found the right balance:  “Prussian jurisprudence has found a temperament between the laxity of Egypt’s and the severity of France’s.” At the same time, he affirms harshness for the most evil crimes “so that the punishment is always in step with the crime.”

These considerations on humaneness were also linked to the abolition of torture. Frederick expresses revulsion for the practice of trial by ordeal in England and of “la question” (the seeking of confessions under torture) in France. Frederick banned torture in Prussia on his third day on the throne. He did so on the grounds that tolerance to pain was not necessarily correlated with virtue and that citizens should not be forced to incriminate themselves. This ban “caused a sensation in Europe” and put Prussia “at the vanguard of modernity.”[1]

With perhaps excessive rhetorical flourish, Frederick claimed to be taking “the side of humanity against a custom shameful to all Christians and civilized peoples, and, I dare to add, a custom as cruel as it is useless. [. . .] It would be better to forgive twenty guilty people than to sacrifice an innocent. [. . .] The question in Prussia was abolished eight years ago [. . .] we are certain to not confuse the innocent and the guilty, and justice is delivered no less.”

Other examples of humaneness are Frederick’s abolition of the Hurenstafe (the “Whores’ Punishment” instituted by his father, meaning execution by tying the woman in a bag and drowning her in a river) and a ban on hiding unwanted pregnancies and killing unwanted infants.

Frederick provides quite a long narration on the development of the laws and rights of Englishmen, including the Magna Carta, habeas corpus, and trial by jury: “the nation still conserves this privilege.”

Usury & Inequality

Frederick ascribes considerable importance to economic inequality and to the evil of usury in the history of the laws. He writes: “nothing makes more odious differences of condition than the tyranny which the rich exert with impunity over the miserable.” To this end, Frederick put limits on the ability to appeal, for prior to this those of means could appeal decisions in Prussia’s various courts almost endlessly.

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Frederick identifies usury, with the related self-reinforcing accumulation of wealth by an oligarchy, as a major cause of revolution throughout history, accounting for much social unrest in Athens and Rome. He even calls striking the right balance between lenders and debtors “the philosopher’s stone of jurisprudence”:

The laws concerning debtors are indisputably those which require the most circumspection and prudence on the part of those who publish them. If these laws favor creditors, debtors’ conditions become too difficult; an unfortunate accident can forever ruin their fortune. If, on the contrary, this law is to advantageous to them, it alters public confidence, by denying contracts which are founded on good faith.

This happy medium which, while upholding the validity of contracts, does not oppress insolvent debtors, seems to me to be the philosopher’s stone of jurisprudence.

It seems to me that wealth has a tendency to self-accumulate in a self-reinforcing fashion, as Marx famously analyzed. This is especially when these wealthy elites, which are typically cognitive/clannish cliques, capture the state. Then, the correction may only be achieved by a social revolution, whether enlightened or egalitarian.

National Genius

Though laws are fashioned by universal reason, they must be tailored to local circumstances, namely a nation’s geographical, political, and cultural character. Frederick stresses on several occasions that the laws must respect the “national genius” of the governed, what we might call national character:

We observe again, by examining the conduct of wise legislators, that the laws must be adapted to the kind of government and to the genius of the nation which must receive them; that the best legislators have had as their goal public felicity; and that in general all laws which are most in line with natural equity, with a few exceptions, are the best.

As Lycurgus found an ambitious people, he gave them laws more suited to making warriors than citizens; and if he banished gold from his republic, it was because interest is of all vices that most opposed to glory.

Solon himself said that he did not give the Athenians the most perfect laws, but the best laws they were capable of receiving.

Frederick then does not advocate a naïve universalism sometimes associated with the Enlightenment, but adaptation to national character. Solon’s laws differed from Lycurgus’ also in accordance with their maritime position, propitious for commerce.

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Conversely, Frederick asserts: “The laws indeed must accord with the genius of nations, or one must not hope for them to last.” To ignore national character is to build laws upon weak foundations, leading to their dissolution. Frederick cites the early Romans as an example of a democratic people, who hence rejected regimes dominated by the king or the propertied classes.

Frederick also argues that laws should be harsher for less civil nations, which are often less developed ones: “It finally seems to me that, among nations who have barely emerged from barbarism, the legislators must be severe; that, among civilized peoples, whose manners are gentle, one needs human legislators.”

This adaptation of laws to local political and cultural character naturally suits sovereigns such as Frederick, who can thus justify their independent particular choices while respecting those of others, contrasting with the ideology of intolerant world-empires, who claim universal jurisdiction.

Against Bad Laws & Lawyering

Frederick makes a number of general comments on avoiding bad laws. The laws must not be vague, for this leads to insincere, hair-splitting legal debate (“la chicane”) and judges must then “have recourse to the intention of the legislator.” Frederick argues that “The skillful legislator does not overload the public with superfluous laws.” An excess of laws leads to confusion and contradiction: “Few wise laws make the people happy.”[2] Laws should be replaced when these are “contrary to public happiness and natural equity, when they are enounced in vague and obscure terms, and finally when they imply contradiction.”

Frederick repeatedly attacks the use of rhetoric by lawyers, including Cicero, seeking to emotionally manipulate judges rather than stick to fact and logic. Frederick expresses considerable pride that his grand chancellor, Samuel von Cocceji, had legally banned rhetoric (I leave aside whether this measure was effective):

Prussia has followed this Greek custom, and if the dangerous refinements of eloquence are banned from pleas, this is thanks to the grand chancellor, whose integrity, understanding, and indefatigable activity would have done justice to the Greek and Roman republics, in the times when these were the most fecund in great men.

Questioning Convention: The Case of Aborted Bastards

Quite in keeping with a tradition of philosophy founded by Socrates, Frederick urges the questioning of convention in the formulation of the laws. Custom should be examined in the light of reason and reformed according to the public good. He notes that bad civil laws are often kept by a kind of inertia “to not shock the prejudices of the nation” and “purely because of their antiquity.”

Frederick did not however advocate an indiscriminate contempt for convention. On the contrary, he advises caution for men are “in the majority, animals of custom” therefore “it could be dangerous to touch them [customs],” for this may lead to more confusion than good. Frederick then advises a pragmatic and reasonable approach to tradition.

A large number of the historical events cited by Frederick seem to refer to this sort of approach, particularly with regard to warfare and natalism. The martial Spartans allowed men and women to train and wrestle together naked. Solon allowed women to remarry if their husbands were impotent. The Romans, at various times, passed laws subsidizing having of three children, recognizing posthumous children (when the father died before birth), and legalizing divorce.

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There is also a hint of Frederick’s contempt for Christian dogma as when he recounts of Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome:

He wanted the kings to have a sovereign authority in matters of justice and religion; he had no belief in fables ascribed to the gods; that we have for them holy and religious sentiments, attributing nothing dishonest to their blessed natures.

This too is quite in line with Plato’s Socrates, so eager to revise or suppress inherited myths and poems when these show the gods in an impious and irrational light. Frederick adds that Romulus considered the very walls of Rome to be “sacred,” the violation of which was the pretext for killing his brother Remus. This may be taken as a metaphor for the security of the city being a supreme religious imperative, overriding even the closest family ties.

Frederick provides a practical example of questioning convention with the case of the illegality of abortion, which was often punished by death. He considers this practice as barbaric as the Spartan and Roman fathers’ right to kill their children. In fact, Frederick does not argue for the legalization of abortion, but rather the elimination of the most common cause of abortion, which is the stigma of bastardy:

Is there not something quite harsh in the way which we punish abortions? God forbid that I would excuse the dreadful action of these Medeas who, cruel to themselves and to the voice of blood, suffocate the future race, if I dare to express myself so, without letting it see the day! But let the reader strip himself of all prejudices of custom, and let him deign to lend some attention to the reflections which I will present him.

Do not the laws attach a degree of infamy to secret childbirths? A girl born with a too gentle temperament, deceived by the promises of a scoundrel, does she not find herself, in consequence of her credulity, in the situation of having to choose between the loss of her honor and that of the unfortunate fruit which she has conceived? Is it not the fault of the laws to put her in such a violent situation? And does not the severity of judges deprive the State of two subjects at once, the runt who has perished, and the mother, who could abundantly repair the loss by a legitimate propagation? One responds to this that there are homes for orphan children. I know they save an infinity of bastards; but would it not be better to cut the evil by its roots, and conserve so many poor creatures who miserably perish, by abolishing the blemishes attached to consequence of an imprudent and flighty love?

Frederick then wished to prevent the abortion of bastards and the execution of their mothers, that manners be gentler and his state more populous.

Towards European Law?: The Case of Duels

Frederick’s second example of questioning convention is the practice of duels. Here, he notes that laws against dueling are often ineffective because of the contrary social stigma of those who reject them. A nobleman rejecting a duel is considered unmanly while a soldier may well lose employment by his loss of reputation. Thus, monarchs as powerful as Louis XIV of France and Frederick-William (Frederick’s father, also known as the Soldier King), had failed to eliminate the practice, as “duels changed their name.”

Frederick advises as the only solution the punishing of duelers following a mutual agreement among European countries to not grant asylum to the guilty:

If all the princes of Europe do not assemble in a congress, and do not agree among themselves to attach dishonor to those who, despite their rulings, attempt to slaughter each other in single combat, if, I say, they do not agree to refuse all asylum to this kind of killer, and to punish severely those who insult their peers, either in speech, or in writing, or by ways of deed, there will be no end to duels.

Let me not be accused of having inherited the visions of the abbot [Charles-Irénée Castel] de Saint-Pierre [a French writer who had imagined a world without war]: I see nothing impossible in individuals submitting their quarrels to the decision of judges, just as they submit the disagreements which decide their fortunes; and by what reason would princes not assemble in a congress for the good of humanity, after having held so many on subjects of lesser importance? I return to this, and I dare to assure that this is the only way to abolish in Europe this inappropriate point of honor, which has cost the lives of so many honest people whose fatherlands could have expected great services from.

Here again, Frederick wishes to save lives which could serve the nation. The assembly of European princes to establish common norms is an interesting prefiguring of the later bourgeois states’ exponential practice of negotiating European norms in various treaties. We cannot say that Frederick is advocating “European law” per se because he does not suggest the establishment of a purported suprastatal enforcer (e.g., a court).

Frederick reflects typical Enlightenment optimism:

To imagine that men are all demons, and to rail against them with cruelty, is the vision of ferocious misanthrope; to suppose that men are all angels, and to give up the reigns to them, is the dream of an imbecilic Capuchin monk; to believe that they are neither all good nor all bad, to reward good actions beyond their worth, to punish bad actions less than what they deserve, to have indulgence for their weaknesses and humanity for all, that is how a reasonable man must act.

Conclusion

As expressed in the Dissertation, Frederick the Great’s thoughts on lawmaking are striking for their modernity. One can certainly identify signs prefiguring our current troubles. His public circumspection and private contempt for organized religion is no doubt a forerunner a certain agnosticism culminating in nihilism. Frederick’s pleas for a humane approach, while understandable in those still-brutal days (try reading about premodern crime and punishment without flinching), can be taken to a demagogic excess.

However, Frederick is careful to always make his argument with reference to the public good: humaneness and innovation are interesting to explore, but if these clash with the general welfare, the latter must always prevail. Our time is one of individualism and egalitarianism, a time when laws are largely judged by whether they grant free caprice and “equal rights” to individuals. Frederick in contrast provides powerful arguments in favor of laws established by paternal authority for the well-being of the community as a whole and for the promotion of good socio-cultural norms.

Frederick furthermore argues forcefully for a pragmatic and rational approach to lawmaking. One should not be impious or contemptuous of custom for its own sake, but one should be willing to rationally examine and reform custom in light of the public good. Outside of utopias, Frederick saw enlightened patriarchy as perhaps the best possible form of government. The great philosopher Schopenhauer [2] would later concur with this assessment, seeing an autocratic and benevolent “national father” as the form of rule most suited to an imperfect mankind.

Frederick was opposed to a crude universalism and cognizant of the need to adapt legislation to national characteristics. At the same time, he saw himself as participating in a genuinely pan-European intellectual culture and on occasion advocated for joint solutions among the princes of Europe. Frederick the Great’s principles of lawmaking then retain all their relevance for European patriots today.

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Notes

1. Baillot and Wehinger, “Frédéric II, Roi-philosophe et législateur,” 13.

2. Frederick seems to have failed to implement the legal simplification he advocated. His Codex Fridericiani, which was worked upon during this period and sought to simplify Prussia’s plethora of laws stemming from innumerable traditions and jurisdictions,  was apparently enormous and unwieldy. Frederick writes that in Germany: “there is no circle, no principality, no matter how small, which does not have a different customary law; and these rights, through the length of time, have acquired force of law.”

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[2] great philosopher Schopenhauer: http://www.counter-currents.com/2016/03/schopenhauers-critique-of-democracy/

[3] Image: http://www.counter-currents.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Laws.png